Breeding field crops

1. Lecture No: 1 Definition, Aim, Objectives and Scope of Plant Breeding
Definition : Plant breeding can be defined “as an art and science” and
technology of improving the genetic make up of plants in relation to their
economic use for the man kind. or Plant breeding is the art and science of
improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of mankind. Or Science of
changing and improving the heredity of plants .or Plant breeding deals with the
genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science of crop
improvement.
Aim : Plant breeding aims to improve the characteristics of plants so that they
become more desirable agronomically and economically. The specific objectives
may vary greatly depending on the crop under consideration.
Objectives of Plant Breeding :
1. Higher yield : The ultimate aim of plant breeding is to improve the yield of
“economic produce on economic part”. It may be grain yield, fodder yield, fibre
yield, tuber yield, cane yield or oil yield depending upon the crop species.
Improvement in yield can be achieved either by evolving high yielding varieties
or hybrids.
2. Improved quality: Quality of produce is another important objective in plant
breeding. The quality characters vary from crop to crop. Eg. grain size, colour,
milling and baking quality in wheat. Cooking quality in rice, malting quality in
barley, colour and size of fruits, nutritive and keeping quality in vegetables,
protein content in pulses, oil content in oilseeds, fibre length, strength and
fineness in cotton.
3. Abiotic resistance : Crop plants also suffer from abiotic factors such as
drought, soil salinity, extreme temperatures, heat, wind, cold and frost, breeder
has to develop resistant varieties for such environmental conditions.
4. Biotic resistance : Crop plants are attacked by various diseases and insects,
resulting in considerable yield losses. Genetic resistance is the cheapest and the

2. best method of minimizing such losses. Resistant varieties are developed
through the use of resistant donor parents available in the gene pool.
5. Change in maturity Duration / Earliness : Earliness is the most desirable
character which has several advantages. It requires less crop management
period, less insecticidal sprays, permits new crop rotations and often extends
the crop area. Development of wheat varieties suitable for late planting has
permitted rice-wheat rotation. Thus breeding for early maturing crop varieties,
or varieties suitable for different dates of planting may be an important
objective. Maturity has been reduced from 270 days to 170 days in cotton, from
270 days to 120 days in pigeonpea, from 360 days to 270 days in sugarcane.
6. Determinate Growth : Development of varieties with determinate growth is
desirable in crops like mung, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), cotton (Gossypium
sp.), etc.
7. Dormancy : In some crops, seeds germinate even before harvesting in the
standing crop if there are rains at the time of maturity, e.g., greengram,
blackgram, Barley and Pea, etc. A period of dormancy has to be introduced in
these crops to check loss due to germination. In some other cases, however, it
may be desirable to remove dormancy.
8. Desirable Agronomic Characteristics: It includes plant height, branching,
tillering capacity, growth habit, erect or trailing habit etc., is often desirable.
For example, dwarfness in cereals is generally associated with lodging resistance
and better fertilizer response. Tallness, high tillering and profuse branching are
desirable characters in fodder crops.
9. Elimination of Toxic Substances : It is essential to develop varieties free from
toxic compounds in some crops to make them safe for human consumption. For
example, removal of neurotoxin in Khesari – lentil (Lathyruys sativus) which
leads to paralysis of lower limbs, erucic acid from Brassica which is harmful for
human health, and gossypol from the seed of cotton is necessary to make them
fit for human consumption. Removal of such toxic substances would increase
the nutritional value of these crops.

3. 10. Non-shattering characteristics: The shattering of pods is serious problem in
green gram. Hence resistance to shattering is an important objective in green
gram.
11. Synchronous Maturity : It refers to maturity of a crop species at one time.
The character is highly desirable in crops like greengram, cowpea, castor and
cotton where several pickings are required for crop harvest.
12. Photo and Thermo insensitivity: Development of varieties insensitive to light
and temperature helps in crossing the cultivation boundaries of crop plants.
Photo and thermo-insensitive varieties of wheat and rice has permitted their
cultivation in new areas. Rice is now cultivated in Punjab, while wheat is a
major rabi crop in West Bengal.
13. Wider adaptability: Adaptability refers to suitability of a variety for general
cultivation over a wide range of environmental conditions. Adaptability is an
important objective in plant breeding because it helps in stabilizing the crop
production over regions and seasons.
14. Varieties for New Seasons: Traditionally maize is a kharif crop. But scientists
are now able to grow maize as rabi and zaid crops. Similarly, mung is grown as a
summer crop in addition to the main kharif crop.
Scope of plant breeding (Future Prospects)
From times immemorial, the plant breeding has been helping the mankind.
With knowledge of classical genetics, number of varieties have been evolved in
different crop plants. Since the population is increasing at an alarming rate,
there is need to strengthened the food production which is serious challenge to
those scientists concerned with agriculture. Advances in molecular biology have
sharpened the tools of the breeders, and brighten the prospects of confidence
to serve the humanity. The application of biotechnology to field crop has
already led to the field testing of genetically modified crop plants. Genetically
engineered rice, maize, soybean, cotton, oilseeds rape, sugar beet and alfalfa
cultivars are expected to be commercialized before the close of 20th century.
Genes from varied organisms may be expected to boost the performance of
crops especially with regard to their resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In

4. addition, crop plants are likely to be cultivated for recovery of valuable
compounds like pharmaceuticals produced by genes introduced into them
through genetic engineering. It may be pointed out that in Europe hirudin, an
anti-thrombin protein is already being produced from transgenic Brassica napus.
Undesirable effects Plant breeding has several useful applications in the
improvement of crop plants. However, it has five main undesirable effects on
crop plants.
1. Reduction in Diversity : Modern improved varieties are more uniform than
land races. Thus plant breeding leads to reduction in diversity. The uniform
varieties are more prone to the new races of pathogen than land races which
have high genetic diversity.
2. Narrow genetic base : Uniform varieties have narrow genetic base. Such
varieties generally have poor adaptability.
3. Danger of Uniformity : Most of the improved varieties have some common
parents in the pedigree which may cause danger of uniformity.
4. Undesirable combinations : Sometimes, plant breeding leads to undesirable
combinations. The examples of man made crops having undesirable
combination of characters are Raphanobrassica and Pomato.
5. Increased susceptibility to minor diseases and pests : Due to emphasis on
breeding for resistance to major diseases and insect pests often resulted in an
increased susceptibility to minor diseases and pests. These have gained
importance and, in some cases, produced severe epidemics. The epidemic
caused by Botrytis cinerea (grey mold) in chickpea during 1980-82 in Punjab and
Haryana. The severe infection by Karnal bunt (Tilletia sp.) on some wheat
varieties, infestation of mealy bugs in Bt cotton.
History and development of plant breeding
– About 10,000 years ago when man is believed to have started agriculture.
- Plant breeding began when man first choose certain plants for cultivation.
- 1873 - the work of Patrick Shireff was first published.

5. - 700 BC - Babylonians and Assyrians pollinated date palm artificially.
- 17th century - several varieties of heading lettuce were developed in France.
- Domestication may be the most basic method of plant breeding.
- 1727 - The first plant breeding company was established in France by the
vilmorins.
History of plant breeding in India
- 1871 – The Government of India created the Department of Agriculture.
- 1905 – The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was establish in Pusa,
Bihar.
- 1934 – The buildings of the institute damaged in earthquake.
- 1936 – Shifted to New Delhi.
- 1946 – Name was changed Indian Agricultural Research Institute
- 1901-05 – Agricultural Colleges were established at Kanpur, Pune, Sabour,
Llyalpur, Coimbatore.
- 1929 – Imperial council of Agricultural Research was established
- 1946 – Name was change to Indian Council Agricultural Research.
- 1961 - The first hybrid maize varieties released by the project
- ICAR initiated coordinated projects for improvement of the other crops
–1960 – First Agricultural University established at Pantnagar, Nainital, U.P.
Some Indian Plant Breeders and their contributions
-B.P. Pal - An eminent Wheat breeder, developed superior disease resistant N.P.
varieties of wheat.
-M.S. Swaminathan - Responsible for green revolution in India, developed high
yielding varieties of Wheat and Rice
-Pushkarnath - Famous potato breeder
-N.G.P. Rao - An eminent sorghum breeder

6. -K. Ramaiah - A renowned rice breeder
-Ram Dhan Singh - Famous wheat breeder
-D.S. Athwal - Famous pearlmillet breeder
-Bosisen - An eminent maize breeder
-Dharampal Singh - An eminent oil-seed breeder
-. Santhanam - Famous cotton breeder.
Lecture No: 2 Concepts of breeding Self pollinated, Cross pollinated
and asexually propagated crops
The mode of pollination and reproduction play an important role in
plant breeding. Based on this, crop plants are divided into three
groups viz.
1. Self Pollinated 2. Cross pollinated 3. Vegetatively propagated Self
Pollinated Species:
1-Self fertilizing/pollinated species:-
development of seed take place by self pollination (autogamy). Hence
self pollinated species are also known as autogamous species or
inbreeders. Various plant characters such as homogamy, cleistogamy,
chasmogamy, bisexuality etc. favour self fertilization.
Some important features of autogamous species are 1. They have
regular self pollination 2. They are homozygous and have advantage
of homozygosity, means they are true breeding. 3. Inbreeders do not
have recessive deleterious genes, because deleterious genes are
eliminated due to inbreeding by way of gene fixation. 4. Inbreeding

7. does not have any adverse effects on inbreeders. 5. In autogamous
species, new gene combinations are not possible due to regular self
pollination. 6. Inbreeders are composed of several component
(homozygous) lines. Hence variability is mostly among component
lines. 7.Inbreeders have generally narrow adaptation and are less
flexible.
Methods of Breeding in Autogamous Species
1. Plant introduction 2. Pureline selection 3. Mass selection 4.
Pedigree method 5. Bulk method6. Single seed descent method 7.
Backcross method 8. Heterosis breeding9. Mutation breeding 10.
Polyploidy breeding 11. Distant hybridization 12.Transgenic breeding.
2-Cross pollinated species :-
This group refers to cross fertilizing species these species produce
seed by cross pollination (allogamy) hence, referred to as allogamous
species or out breeders. Various plant characters which promote cross
pollination which include dichogamy, monoecy, dioecy, heterostylely,
herkogamy, self incompatibility and male sterility.
Some important features of out breeders are 1. They have random
mating. In such population, each genotype has equal chance of mating
with all other genotypes 2. Individuals are heterozygous and have
advantage of heterozygosity 3. Individuals have deleterious recessive
gene which are concealed by masking effect of dominant genes. 4.
Out breeders are intolerant to inbreeding. They exhibit high degree of
inbreeding depression on selfing. 5. Cross pollination permits new
gene combinations from different sources. 6. In these species,
variability is distributed over entire population. 7. They have wide
adaptability and more flexibility to environmental changes due to
heterozygosity and heterogenety.

8. Methods of Breeding Allogamous/cross polinated species
1. Plant introduction 2. Mass and progeny selection.3. Back cross
method. 4. Heterosis breeding 5. Synthetic breeding 6. Composite
breeding .7. Polyploidy breeding 8. Distant hybridization 9. Transgenic
breeding.10. Mutation breeding (rarely)
3-Asexually/vegetatibly propagated species:-
Some crop plants propagate by asexual means i.e. by stem or root
cuttings or by other means. Such species are known as asexually
propagated species or vegetatively propagated species. Such species
are found in both self and cross pollinated groups. Generally asexually
propagated species are highly heterozygous and have broad genetic
base, wide adaptability and more flexibility.
Methods of breeding Asexually/vegetatively propagated species
1. Plant introduction 2. Clonal selection 3. Mass selection (rarely
used) 4. Heterosis breeding 5. Mutation breeding 6. Polyploidy
breeding 7. Distant hybridization.8. Transgenic breeding
BREEDING POPULATIONS -The genetic constitution of plants is
determined by mode of pollination. Self pollination leads to
homozysity and cross pollination results in heterozygosity to exploit
homozygosity in self pollinated crops and heterozygosity in cross
pollinated species, because inbreeders have advantage of
homozygosity and outbreeders have advantage of heterozygosity.
Based on genetic constitution, breeding populations are of four types
viz.
1. Homogenous population:- Genetically similar plants constitute
homogenous populations. Examples of homogeneous populations are
pure lines, inbred lines, F1 hybrid between two pure line or inbred

9. lines and progeny of a clone. Pure lines and inbred lines generally
have narrow adoption. Ex Purelines, inbred line, F 1 hybrids progeny
of a clone
2. Heterogenous populations:- Genetically dissimilar plants constitute
heterogenous populations. Examples are land races, mass selected
populations, composites, synthetics and multilines. Heterogenous
populations have wide adaptability and stable performance under
different
environments. ex Land races, composites synthetics and multilines.
3. Homozygous populations:- Individuals with like alleles at the
corresponding loci are know as homozygous. Such individuals do not
segregate on selfing. Thus non-segregating genotypes constitute
homozygous populations. Examples are pure lines, inbred lines and
mass selected populations in self pollinated plants. Thus pure lines
and inbred lines are homozygous and homogeneous and mass
selected varieties of self pollinated crops and multi lines are
homozygous and heterogenous, because they are mixtures of several
pure lines. Ex Purelines, inbred lines mass selected autogamous
varieties and multilines
4. Heterozygous populations:- Individuals with unlike alleles at the
corresponding loci are referred to as heterozygous. Such individuals
segregate into various types on selfing. This includes F 1 hybrids,
composites and synthetics. Thus F 1 hybrids are heterozygous but
homogeneous and composites and synthetics are heterozygous and
heterogenous population. Such populations have greater. ex F1
hybrids, composites, synthetics and a clone.

10. Plant Breeding Practices in Rice (Oryza sativa
2n=2x=24)
It is world’s most important crop after wheat and maize. It is a warm
season crop grown extensively Korea, South eastern Asia account for 90 %
of world rice production.
Rice producing countries are China, India, Japan, Korea,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and other S.E. Asian countries.
In India, rice cultivated on large scale in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Assam, Oryza, Bengal,
Bihar, U.P, M.P, Punjab and Haryana. The high yielding rice and
wheat cultivars led to the birth of Green revolution.
Origin: Oryza sativa originated from India and China. The greatest diversity
is observed in Assam and Meghalaya area and southwest china. The
several authors considered annual type was likely to be the progenitor.
Cultivated spp2, and wild up -16.
Types:
1) India Type: It is tropical type rice. It is extensively grown in India,
Srilankha, Thailand, Malaysia and adjacent countries. These are tall plants,
weak stem, photoperiod sensitivity, easy shattering, and broad droopy
leaves and having grain dormancy.
2) Japonica Type: These are temperate type extensively grown Yangtze
river valley of china, Korea, and Japan, these are tolerant low temperature,
have more leaves, few tillers, relatively resistant to shattering. The grains
are short, broad low in amylase content. Rice becomes sticky on cooking.
3) Javanica Type: These are intermediate type. These are cultivated in
Indonesia, Phillippines , Taiwan and Japan. These are tall, thick stemmed,
low to tillering and resistant to shattering. These varieties have broad stiff
leaves, long awns and large bold grains.
Botany and Floral Biology: Annual plant growing 60 to 150 cm, stem erect
and cylindrical, soild nodes and hollow internodes, buds in axil of basal
leaves give rise tillers, leaves are alternate and linear with parallel
venation. Inflorescence is terminal panicle. Each spiklet is complete flower
consist of outer two glumes boat shaped pelia and flattered lemma. Lemma
and pela from husk and enclose a grain after fertilization.

11. Lemma and pelia enclose six stamens with slender filament and pistil.
During early stage spiklets are white with green anthers and closed style.
On maturity spiklets turn green and anther become yellow and style
separate out from each other.
Flowering: Rice is predominantly self pollinated crop but natural cross
pollination take place up to 3% depending upon varieties, season and
environmental conditions.
A blooming starts from tip of the panicle and proceeds downward and
continues for 7 to 10 days. Most of the flower blooms with in 2 to 4 days
from emergence of panicle. Flowers open during morning hours between 9
to 11 hours depending upon temperature (30 to 35 0C) and relative
humidity ( 70 to 80 %).
The flowers remain open for 30 to 70 minutes and close after fertilization.
Anthers dehisce and shed pollens just before the flower opens. Anthers
and pollination take place simultaneously with the opening of flower.
Breeding Objectives:
1) High grain yield,
2) Non shattering habit,
3) Dwarf growth habit
4) Wider adaptability
5) Synchronous tillering habit
6) Resistance to pest stem borer, midge, gallfly, etc.
7) Resistance to diseases
8) Early maturity
9) Resistance to high doses of fertilizers.
10) Grain quality, shape, and size, scent cooking and milling quality.
Emasculation:
It is done in the afternoon on preveious day or early in the morning on the
day of pollination. The ear just emerged is selected and all spiklets already
opened are clipped the spiklets which are likely to be opened are selected
and six anthers from each spiklet is removed with needle and fine pointed
forceps. The emasculated ear after examination with lens covered with
perforated butter paper bag and labelled.
In mass emasculation method hot water having temperature 42 to 45 0C is
carried in thermos flask in the field. The panicle of the proper stage is
selected and inserted in the water for 2 to 3 minutes. The flask is
unopened spiklets are clipped off.
Pollination:

12. It is done on next day morning. Matured anthers are collected from
protected male parent in petri dish and dusted on the stigma of
emasculated flower with brush and forceps and covered with butter paper
bag to protect natural cross pollination.
Breeding Methods:
1) Introduction:
The seeds of released varieties in other countries are imported tested,
evaluatd along with native varieties and if found superior , released for
commercial cultivation. The variety Taichung native -1 (T-N-1 ) is the cross
between
Dee-geo-woo-gene and Tsai Taichung is imported in 1960 for seed
multiplication and distribution. Another variety IR-8, a tall and heavy
tillering disease resistant developed from cross between Indica variety of
Indonesia and dee-geo-gene imported in 1966.
2) Selection:
From land races out standing lines are selected and evaluated along with
existing varieties and superior types are multiplied and released for
commercial cultivation. The varieties developed by selection are Terna,
Tuljapur-1, Ambika, Ambemohor pussa -33, etc.
3) Pedigree Method:
It is the most common method of rice breeding. Crosses made to combine
genes for desirable characteristics from two or more parents. Seeds of
such crosses sown in pedigree nursery. Selections are made in F3 and
onwards generations and superior progenies are carried forward and
tested with existing check variety and if found superior released for
commercial cultivation.
Bulk selection method is not followed in rice but single seed decent known
as rapid generation advance is in use in IARI. Two to three generation in
green house can be grown in a year.
4) Breeding for Disease and Pest Resistance:
Name of Disease Donor
Bacterial blight Xa-4, B-J-1 and TKM-6
Blast
Ram-tulsi, Tetep and M-
302.
Tungro
Ambemohor-157, IR-20
and Kamod

13. Grassy Stunt
IR-28, IR-29, IR-30,and
IR-34.
Name of Pest Donor
Brown plant hopper Babawee, Rathu Henati
Gall midge PTB-10, PTB-18, PTB-21
Stem Borer
TKM-6, MTU-15, TKM-3,
and Ratna
Basmati Rice: Basmati rice is a good source of foreign exchange earning
for us. Traditional basmati rice varieties are tall prone to logging later and
poor in yield. The incorporation of Basmati quality in high yielding semi
dwarf backgrounds has been quite challenging ne. it is likely due to and
complicated inheritance of quality components. Basmati quality is
characterized by pleasant aroma, linear kernel elongation on cooking and
soft texture.
Basmati Varieties: Basmati – 370, Pusa-150, Pusa-523, Kasturi ,
DRR-Hyderabad, Pusa-basmati.
Hybrid Rice: CGMS lines are used in production of hybrid seed china is the
only country in the world where farmers use hybrid rice technology on
commercial scale. To produce hybrid seed male and female parents are
planted alternatively in specific row rations. The most common rations
are 1:6 to 1:8 the technology includes.
1. Planting across the wind direction to increase pollen dispersal on female
plants.
2. Clipping of flag leaves of male sterile and restores lines at booting to
facilitate pollen circulation.
3. Applying 20-30 ppm GA3 to male sterile and Restore lines at heading to
promote emergence of panicle from sheath.
4. Supplying pollination by rope pulling during flowering. Chinese now
getting hybrid seed yield more than 1000 kg/ha. The seed rate used is only
25% of the conventional varieties and the country has sufficient
manpower for hybrid seed production so the hybrid rice is popular in china.
The countries where manpower is expensive and higher seedling rate is
necessary. This production technique is not economically acceptable.
Generally the hybrids must yield 25% higher than the commercial varieties
to become technology commercially reliable. E.g. Karats Hy.1-(Saihydri).
National Programme / Institutes:

14. 1. All India co-ordinate Rice Improvement Project (AICRIP) Established in
1965. with headquarter. Hyderabad in the farm Project Directorate-
Multidisciplinary team approach having countrywide testing with
Agriculture Universities and ICAR stations.
2. Central Rice Research Institution Cattak (CRRI) Established 1946
controlled by ICAR, basic and applied research in different fields of Rice.
International Institutes:
Institutes Rice Research Institute (IRRI) – Established 1960, - Govt of
philliplines at manila.
Coordinating Centeres:
A.R.S Vadgan maval, Dist Pune
A.R.S Karjat Dist Thane
A.R.S Isatburi. Dist Nasik
Plant Breeding Practices in Wheat
Triticum aestivum L. 2n= 6x=42)
Wheat is the most important cereal in the world, giving about one-third of
the total production, followed closely by rice. In temperate regions it is the
major source of food. The chief use of wheat is, the flour for making bread.
Wheat is grown in all the continents except Antartica. It is the staple food
of the 1/3rd of the world’s population
Distribution-Wheat crop is harvested some where in the world as far
south as Argentina to as far north as Finland. It is the major crop of
USA, Canada and Asia,europe, japan,mexico. it is C3 crop not
well adapted to tropical and subtropical condition. It is cultivated on
large scale in Punjab, Haryana, U.P, M.P, Bihar, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Maharashtra.

15. Origin:
Wheat is evolved from wild grasses. The centre of origin is South
Asia. Tegri- Euphatis drainage basin. Large genetic variability is
observed in Iran, Isreal, and Bordering countires.
Wheat can be crossed with Aegilops and Agropyron species
successfully. Man made hybrid, Triticale is the cross between wheat
(Triticum monococum) and Rye ( Cecale Cereals).
There are 13 diploid, 12 tetraploid and hexaploid species of Triticum
with genotypes given below:
Sr.NoBotanical Name
Chromosome
No Genome Wild/Cultivated
1
Triticum=
monococum 2n=14 AA Cultivated
2 Aegilops speltoids 2n=14 BB Wild
3 Aegilops caudate 2n=14 CC Wild
4 Aegilops speltoids 2n=14 DD Wild
5 Triticum squrrosa 2n=14 EE Rye
6 Triticum durum 2n= 28 AABB Earner Wheat
7 Triticum aestivum 2n =- 42 AABBDDCommon wheat
8 Triticumcompactum2n =- 42 AABBDDClub Wheat
Evolution:
Triticum monococum X Unknown wheat
(2n=14, AA) (2n-14,BB)
F1, (AB) Spontaneous chromosome doubling
Tetraploid wheat X Aegilops squrrosa or T. tauschii
(2n-28 AABB) (2n-14, DD)
F1 (ABD) Spontaneous chromosome doubling
Hexaploid wheat (2n=42, AABBDD)
Bread wheat or common wheat, Triticum aestivum.
Flowering:
Wheat is self pollinated crop due to chasm gamy. Blooming starts
several days after the emergence of spike from flag leaf. Starts in
the main stem (Mother tiller) followed by other tillers in the order of
development. Flowering in the upper part of the spike and proceeds

16. in both the directions. Blooming is continued throughout the day,
and 3-5 days are required to complete. The cross pollination may
take place to the extent of 1-2%. The immature anthers are green in
colour, which turn yellowish when matured. The stigmatic lobs are
closed together when young but spread out maturity. The lodicules
absorb moisture and swell due to which glumes are separated apart
in 20 minutes. Filament elongate and anther dehisce within 2 to 3
minutes. At the same time stigma is recessive. The glumes are again
closed at the end of 15 to 20 minutes.
Breeding Objective:
1) High grain yield
a) Early maturity
b) Photo and thermo insensitive varieties
c) Resistance to disease like rust, smut and leaf spots.
d) Response to high doses of fertilizers
e) Dwarf and lodging resistant varieties.
2) Breeding non- lodging varieties: This is achieved after the
identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese variety Norin 10.
Most of our dwarf wheats are two gene dwarfs. E.g. Sonara 63,
sonara 64, kalyan sona. Emphasis is now on triple gene dwarfs.
3) Breeding for disease resistance Rust is the major disease.
Both stem rust and leaf rust are important ones. There are
different races of rust. So while breeding for rust resistance
horizontal resistance is to be looked into. Back cross method of
breeding and development of multi lines are the methods.
4. Breeding for insect resistance -Hessian fly is the major pest.
Resistance in most varieties is thro’ Antibiosis.
5. Breeding for quality. Different wheat varieties vary greatly in
their chemical composition which is considerably influenced by
environment. The varieties of hard wheat or bread wheat which
have higher gluten content. The soft wheat contain lesser gluten
content which is suitable for cake making, pastries etc. The durum
wheats are unsuited for either cakes or bread but they are
suitable for making macaroni. So depending upon the use the
quality breeding objective is to be fixed.

17. Hybridization Technique:
Emasculation:
The spike enclosed in leaf sheath or partially emerged is selected for
emasculation. The awns and tips of spiklets are cut off to avoid
obstacle in the process of emasculation and pollination, similarly the
central sterile flower also removed with forceps. The requisite
numbers of spikelet are kept on the spike and with the half of
forceps the glumes are separated and three young immature
greenish yellow anthers are removed from each flower and the
flower bagged.
Pollination:
On the next morning between 9.00 to 11.00 am the pollen grain
collected desired protected plant in petridish and dusted on stigma
of emasculated flower with the help of hair brush. The spike is
covered with bag after pollination and labelled again.
Breeding Method:
1) Introduction:
The green revolution is successful in the world due to introduction of
Norin-10 variety (dwarfing gene) developed in Japan. The variety
Norin-10 was never important variety in Japan. The seed sample
received in 1946 to Washington State University and Crosses were
made in 1948 worht Brevor – 14 and the genotype become main
source of two Norin-10 dwarfing gene. Then Dr. N.E. Borlaug (
Father of green revolution) who engineered development of semi
dwarf wheat. Or his work he was awarded a Nobel peace Prize in
1970. In India, the dwarf wheat varieties were importance from
Mexico, Sonoro-64, and Larma Rojo- 64 A in 1965-66. Latter on
made green revolution successful India.
2) Pure Line Selection:
In this method individual progenies are evaluated and promising
progenies are finally selected old Indian tall varieties E.g. N-P-4, N-
P-6, N-P-12, PB-12, PB-11 were developed by pure line selection.

18. 3. Hybridisation and selection
a) Inter varietal: A number of successful derivatives were
developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab. NP 809 - New pusa
multiple cross derivative. However all these varieties were lodging
and poor yielder when compared to other countries. Hence the
wheat hybridization programme was changed by Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan during 1963. These were utilised in our breeding
programme and amber colour wheat varieties like Kalyan Sona,
Safed Lerma, Sharbati Sonara were released, these are double gene
dwarfs.
b) Inter specific crosses:- To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for
rust resistance.
c) Back cross method of breeding:- Rust resistance in Chinese
spring from Thatcher.
4. Hybrid wheat :- At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile
lines were identified by crossing T.timophevi x T. aestivum Bison
variety By repeated back crossing a male sterile line resembling
Bison was evolved. At present USA and Canada are doing work on
this.
5. Mutation breeding:- Dr. M. S. Swaminathan did extensive work on
this with gamma rays. Sharbati Sonara with increased protein
content was evolved.
6. Development of multilines:- Borlaug developed multilines against
rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI. Multiline is a mixture of pure
lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar.
Each line is produced by separate back cross method of breeding.
Each line having resistance against a particular race of a disease.
Pedigree Method:
The most common method used in self pollinated crops is pedigree
method of selection. The crosses are made between complimentary
lines and records are maintained of selections made over number of
generations. The procedure provide selection opportunities
generation after generations. It allow breeder to identify bet
combination with considerable uniformity. The hybrid bulk selection

19. method is relatively inexpensive, in which generations are advanced
without selection till F5 to F6 and much material can be handled, nut
often difficulty is isolation of superior recombination. To overcome,
this difficulty single decent method of selection is used in which
population remain constant over segregation generations.
Varieties:
a) Timely sown: NIAW-34, NIAW-301, NIAW-2496, HD-2278,
HD-2189.
b) Late Sown : HD-2501, Sonalika, HI-977, etc.
Back Cross Method:
This method is used when variety otherwise is good, high yielding
but deficient in simply inherited trait. The obvious effect of this
method the production potential of improved variety is fixed at the
level of recurrent variety. Recently identified donors always are used
in back cross breeding programme.
Stem Rust: Resistance gene- Sr2 From variety Hope.
Leaf Rust: Resistance gene – Lr 13 from variety Sonalika
Multiline Breeding:
It is extension of back cross breeding and could be called
Multilateral backcrossing. It consist of spontaneous back cross
programme to produce isogenic lines for resistance to disease, in
back ground of some recurrent parent. Each isogenic line will be
similar to recurrent parent but they will differ for resistance to
various physiological farms of diseases. A mixture of these isogenic
lines is called multiline variety. E.g. ML-KS-11 (PAU, Ludhiana) and
Bithoor developed at CSAUAT, Kanpur.
Mutation Breeding:
This method is used in depleted gene pool situation. Chemical
mutagenes EMS provide broad spectrum genetic changes with lesser
sterility effects, as compared to X ray or particular mutation.

20. Varieties developed are 1) NP836, Sarbati Sonora, Pusa larma, etc.
are examples of induced mutation and NP-11 is the examples of
spontaneous mutation.
Hybrid Wheat Breeding:
Hybrid wheat breeding is not commercially successful through
cytoplasmic genetic male sterile lines are available due to following
problems.
1) Inadequate heterosis over wide range of environment.
2) Inadequate genetically controlled fertility restoration.
3) High cost of hybrid seed production.
Biotechnology:
In vitro production of haploids- Anther or pollen culture is used to
produce the haploid plants. The frequency of obtaining haploids
increase when anthers are treated with cold socks and heat
treatments. The haploids when treated with colchicines, the
homozygous diploid line can developed in short period and can be
used in hybrid breeding programme. The plantlets can be tested in
vitro for different stresses drought, salt, disease etc. to evaluate
before field screening.
International Programmes:
CIMMYT:
International wheat and maize development center- Mexico- It has
20 substations in the world.
UNDP:
United Nation Development Programme- Washington, financed by
World Bank.
National Programme:
AICOWIP:
All India coordinated wheat Improvement Project Established –
1965 New Delhi IARI.

21. WPD:
Wheat Project Directorate- Established -1991. Shifted to Karnal-
Multidisciplinary multilicational Research Programme.
Collaborating Centres:
ARS Mahabaleshwar, ARS Niphad, MKV Parbhani, PDKV Akola, ARS
Wasim and MACS Pune.
Plant Breeding Practices in Maize (Zea mays L. 2n=20)
Maize is second leading crop after wheat. United status produces
50% of the world production. In India the total cropped area under
maize is 6 million hectares with 1250 kg productivity. The states
growing maize on large scale are Uttar Pradesh. Bihar,
Rajastan, Madhya Pradesh, Panjab and Himachal Pradesh.
The maize has C4 photosynthetic pathway and has high seed
multiplication ratio.
Distribution-usa china Russia Canada india
Origin:
Maize is native of America, with two possible centres of origins.
a) Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia,
b) Southeren Mexico and Central America.
Based on excavations Mexico is accepted as centre of origin for
maize.
Species:
1) Zae mays L. ( 2n=2x=20); corn
2) Zea maxicana ( 2n=2x=20) Annual teosinte
3) Zea Perinnis ( 2n=40) Perennianl tetraploid teosinte
4) Zea diploperinnis ( 2n=2x=20) Perennial diploid teosinte
Similarly, the genus Tripsicum is closely related to Zea and has 11
species. Crosses between maize and sugarcane are successful.

22. Botany and Floral Morphology:
It is tall annual plant growing to the height of 1.5 to 3.5 m stem is
thick with distinct nodes and internodes. The leaves are broad and
long, with parallel venation and having dark green colour. The roots
are adventitious and fibrous. It is monoecious plant bearing male
flower are the growing tip as tassel and female flower at the axial of
the leaf on the shoot. The tassel is terminal with staminate flowers
in several roots. Each pairs of flower consist of sessile and
pedicillate spiklet. Each spiklet contains two similar glumes. The
flower contains membranous pelia with three stamens and two
lodicules. The pollens remain viable for 18 to 24 hours.
The female inflorescence is a spadex known as cob or ear. It is
modified lateral branch developed from lateral bud. The shoot is
composed of compressed internodes from which husk rise and
terminates in an ear on which the sessile are borne. Spiklets are in
pair. Each spiklet having two flowers, the lower one is reduced to
lemma and pelia is non-functional, while upper one contained knob
shaped ovary surrounded by broad lemma and thin pelia. One carpel
is provided with long silky hair, which behaves as style and style
stigma throughout the length.
Flowering:
Maize is cross pollinated crop. Blooming starts in the tassel near the
tip of the central axil and it proceeds downward. It takes nearly 14
days to complete flowering. The pollen grains are viable for 24
hours. The pollen shedding begins 2 to 3 days before emergence of
the skills.
Female flower i.e. the cob. The spiklets at the base elongate first and
progress upward until emerge from the husk. The development of
the sink takes about 2 to 5 days. Stigma is receptive for 14 days.
Pollination is influenced by wind and gravity. The position of the cob
has an advantage to trap the pollens shed by tassel.
Breeding Objective:
1) To develop high yielding hybrids and composite having various
maturity duration.
2) To breed varieties for high grain and fodder yield.
3) To breed fertilize responsive varieties.
4) Breeding for wider adaptability to soil and climate.

23. 5) Breeding for resistance to disease and logging.
6) Breeding for industrial quality (Starch or oil content etc)
Emasculation:
The tassels of the female plants are removed immediately as soon as
appeared. The process is called as detasseling. It is always done in
the morning. Ear shoot which emerging from the leaf sheath is
bagged 1 to 2 days below the tip of the preveious day of pollination.
The tassels of selected male parents is also covered with bag on
following day in the morning between 9.00 to 10.00 a.m. pollens
from tassel bag is dusted over the silk of the female cob/eat. The
bag covered ear shoot is torn and bag from the male parent may be
placed over the cob. Care should be taken to avoid contamination of
silk with foreign pollens.
Breeding Methods:
I) Mass Selection:
This is oldest method of selection of cross pollinated crops. It consist
of selection of ears on the basis of plant and ear characteristics and
bulking seed of harvested ears to grow next cycle of mass selection.
During mass selection rigorous selection is avoided as it may create
the problems of inbreeding depression. Varieties developed 1) KT-
41. Basi and Jaunpuri.
II) Hybrid Breeding:
The Term hybrids used to designate F1 populations obtained by
crossing genetically unlike parents.
Types of Hybrids:
A) Conventional Hybrids:
1) Single Crosses:
It is hybrid progeny from crosses between two unrelated inbreeds (
A XB) X C. Popular hybrids are Ganga 5- ( CM-202 X CM-111) X CM-
500 ; Ganga 11- (CM -202 X CM -111) X CM-501 ; high starch – (CM -
400 X CM -300 ) X CM-601.

24. 2) Double Crosses:
It is the hybrid progeny from crosses between two single crosses (
AX B) X ( C X D)
Popular Hybrids:
1) Deccan double hybrid: (CM-104 X CM -105) X ( CM-202 X CM -
201)
2) Deccan 101- (CM-202 X CM -206) X (CM -115 X CM-114)
3) Deccan 103- (CM-120 X CM-118) X (CM -208 X CM-119)
B) Non Conventional Hybrids:
1. International Hybrid:
It is the hybrid progeny cross between two varieties. It is similar to
synthetic and composites. E.g. Variety X Variety.
2. Top Crosses ( Inbreed Variety Cross):
It is the hybrid progeny from crosses between inbreed and variety
E.g. A X variety.
3. Double Top Crosses:
It is the progeny of the cross between single cross of inbreds and
variety. E.g. (AXB) X Variety.
Hybrid Seed Production:
Deta selling is common method used for producing hybrid seed in
India. In USA detasseling and use of CMS line both are used. Male
and female lines grown alternatively in the ratio 2:6. The female
rows are detasseled before inflorescence shades the pollens and
seed produced on detasseled lines is the F1 hybrid seed.
III) Pedigree Method:
In this method the pair of elite lines that complement to one another
are crossed to produce F2 generation and selection is practised in F2
and on word generations.

25. IV) Back Cross Breeding:
In this method two inbreeds A and B are crossed, F1 is backcrossed
with A followed by selection if desirable traits of B and F1 is also
backcrossed with B where selection for desirable traits for A are
made. After 3 backcrosses and selections selfing is done to fix the
selected genes. This method is used to transfer characters like pest
resistance, disease resistance and lodging resistance etc.
V) Population Improvement:
A) Synthetic Variety:
The term used to designate the variety that is maintained from open
pollinated seed following synthesis by hybridization in all
combinations amongst the genotypes selected for high general
combining ability. Now a day no variety is popular developed by this
method in Maharashtra.
B) Composite Varieties:
Composite varieties in maize are derived from varietal crosses and
advanced generations, which are not tested for GCA. The
components are selected on the basis of phenotype i.e disease and
pest resitance, early maturity, resistance to lodging, ear
characteristics etc. the equal quantity of seed of these
phenotypically out standing lines is mixed sown in isolated field to
obtain crosses in all possible combinations and mild selection is
operated to maintain uniformity and homogeneity in the population.
The selected bulk is evaluated in multilicational testing before
release.
Popular Varieties:
Manjri Composite, Hunis, African tall, Vijay, Kisan, Panchganga,
Ambar, Jwahar, etc

26. Breeding in Pulses
Pulse includes species belonging to family Leguminaceae which are
cultivated for edible seeds those most extensively are gram,pigeon
pea/Red gram, black gram, green gram, horse gram, and field
beans. They are high in protein content, the pulses provide at major
source of proteins in diet of many people in the world. Samples are
used as feed for cattle. Gram or chickpea occupies than 40% area
planted under pulses in India. Vary little attention is given to
production and utilization of soybean as the pulses crop. Soybean
has great industrial value as it is rich proteins (40%) and oil ( 20%).
RED GRAM (Cajanus cajan) (2n = 22)
Pigeon pea / Red gram is an important pulse crop next to chickpea
in India. India is a largest producer i.e. 90% of the world’s
production
Origin: Africa and India
Distribution: India, Uganda, Kenya, West Indies, Burma etc.
In India, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh and under
irrigated belt in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
Progenitor: Cajanus cajanifolius, Atylosia lineate
Genus Cajanus and Atylosia and have many similarities. Cajanus has
more than 30 species. The view is that Cajanus arose from Atylosia.
In western ghats, West Bengal and Orissa, Atylosia species are
known as wildtur. Now this genes has been included in Cajanus.
Breeding objectives:
1. Evolution of long duration high yielding variety suitable for
rainfed to replace the local land races : SA1 - Released during 1940

27. 2. To evolve short duration (105 days) varieties suitable for
irrigated / mixed crop with ground nut. ICPL 87 - ICRISAT
3. Breeding for bold grain type with desirable seed coat color HY 3C
long duration variety with dull white seed coat and bold grains.
4. Breeding for vegetable type Green pods with bold seeds are used as
substitute for green peas in some areas are perennial types
5. Breeding for resistance to pests. Heliothis is the major pest,
terminal cluster types are highly susceptible. All our varieties are
highly susceptible.
6. Breeding for disease resistance : Sterility mosaic, root rot, blight
are important diseases. Wild species Cajanus scaraboides, C.lineata
are having resistance.
7. Breeding for high protein content and quality Mean protein
content 23%. The wild species have 27% to 29%, Red seed coat
contains more polyphenol (Tannin) than white seed coat. So
preference is towards white seed coat. Red grain contains lesser
amount of sulphur containing amino acid. When we increase protein
content there will be lesser amount of these amino acids. So care is
to be taken to increase them.
Breeding procedures
1. Introduction : E.g. Prabhat short duration variety from IARI, ICPL
87 from ICRISAT.
2. Pure line selection Earlier breeding work was based on the
assumption that Redgram is a self pollinated crop. However it was
later found to be often cross pollinated crop.
3. Hybridization and selection : Inter varietal : VBN 1 ( Prabath x NY
34) (T.12 x 102) Inter generic : C. cajanus x Cajanus lineata
C.cajanus x C. scaraboides are being attempted
5. Population improvement : Using male sterile line and recurrent
selection methods. Two populations are used, one is seed parent
and the other is pollen parent. The seed parent must have one or
two easily identifiable recessive character and the pollen parent
more dominant genes

28. 6. Mutation breeding LRG-30 variety was susceptible to wilt was
irradiated and wilt resistant variety was developed as ICPL-270
7. Heterosis breeding
Red gram Ideal plant type
a) Long duration: The genotype that have steady rate of growth and
have a moderate harvest index. High seed weight Long pods
Increased number of pod bearing branches.
b) Short duration : Dwarf in nature with erect branches having high
dry matter production High seed wt. Long pods. Increased no of
seeds / Pod Less flower drop.
Breeding centers: Internation Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT) Hyderabad Practical Achievement: Varieties:
Prabhat, Vishakha, Sharada, ICPL – 87 Hybrids: ICPH – 8
GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata) 2n = 22
Also known as mung bean
Origin: India
Distribution : India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Philippines,
Taiwan, Thailand, Nepal and Southern Asian countries.
In India, Maharashtra, UP, MP, Karnataka, Gujarat A.P,
Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
Progenitor: Vigna radiata var: sublobata
Breeding objective:
1. High yield, medium duration dry land varieties
2. High yielding, short duration irrigated varieties : Lines having
rapid growth rate or dry matter increase associated with high
harvest index.
3. Breeding for rice fallows

29. 4. Breeding for disease resistance, YMV, Leaf crinkle virus, Tarai
local Lm 214 - resistant
5. Breeding for quality a) Mung bean has highest digestibility
among grain legumes from 83 to 90%. Varieties having bold seeds
to use as sprouts is the aim. b) Transfer of high methionine content
from black gram to green gram. c) High dal recovery - 80% and
more d) Less hard seed , 6-resistant to shattering ,7-better plant
type
Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction - Pusa baisaki
2. Pure line selection - Co1
3. Hybridisation and selection Inter Varietal : Inter specific - To
transfer high methionine content from black gram to green gram. V.
radiata x V.umbellata rice bean to transfer resistance to bean fly
crossing with V.radiata var. sublobata resistance to bruchids
5. Mutation breeding Co4 - mutant of Co1
6. Embryo culture : Green gram x Black gram
Ideal plant type 1-60 - 65 days duration with determinate habit for
irrigated conditions
2-80 days duration with indeterminate type for dry land condition
3-Plants with more pods and seeds, increased branches poding from
base of main stem with synchronised maturity non - shattering
habit.
Varieties: Jawahar – 45, WGG-2, LGG-127
Black gram (Vigna mungo) 2n = 22
Origin: India

30. Distribution: India, Pakistan, Sirlanka, and South Asian
countries.
In India, Maharashtra, UP, MP, Karnataka, Gujarat A.P,
Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
Progenitor:
Vigna mungo var silvestris
Vigna radiata var sublobata – common progenitor of green gram and
black gram.
Breeding objectives
1. Evolving medium duration high yielding varieties for dry land
cultivation.
2. Evolving short duration high yielding varieties suitable for
irrigated conditions. This can be used as mixed crop in cotton,
turmeric Short duration varieties are Co2, Vamban 1, 2 and 3.
3. Evolving short duration varieties suitable for rice fallow conditions
4. Breeding varieties resistant to diseases YMV is a serious disease.
Leaf crinkle virus, powdery mildew.
5. Pest : White fly vector for YMV and leaf crinkle, leaf eating
caterpillar
6. Breeding for better quality 24% protein. There are lines having
27% protein. These can be utilized. Quality of black gram is
determined by a) Protein content b) Methionine
content 1.17% c) cooking quality - Time d) % of hard seeds. e)
Dal recovery 70%
Breeding methods
1. Introduction : 2. Pure line selection : 3. Hybridization and
selection a) Intervarital b) Inter specific : Vigna mungo x
V.mungo var.sylvestris - Pantnagar. YMV resistant lines obtained.
but pod shatters. More number of back crosses suggested.

31. Vigna mungo x V.radiata for increasing pod length, digestibility.
Sterility is the main problem. Few plants obtained revert back to
parental form.
4) Mutation breeding
5) Embryo rescue - Attempted in inter specific crosses.
Ideal plant type
For irrigated and Rice fallows - 1- Determinate type, 2- short
duration, 3-high dry matter producing with 30cm plant ht. 4-Photo
insensitive.
For rainfed condition. 1-Semi determinate with pod setting from
base of the main stem; 2- higher pod length and 3-more number of
seeds / pod.
Breeding centers: ICRISAT, - Hyderabad ICARDA, -
(International Crops for Agricultural Research in Dryland Areas) –
Syria AVRDC - (Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Centre) IIPR - (Indian Institute of Pulse Research),
Kanpur Varieties:
Black gram : T9, T27, LBG-17, LBG-402 ,sarda(WB 108)
Plant Breeding Practices in Sorghum
DISTRIBUTION- AFRICA SOUTH & CENTRAL INDIA CHINA ARGENTINA
Cultivated Species:
A) Grain Sorghum: Sorghum bicolour L Moench ( 2n=20)
B) Forage Sorghum: Sorghum halpepense (2n=40)
Sorghum Sudanese (2n=20)
Sorghum bicolar (2n-2x-20) comes fifth after wheat, maize, rice, and barley in
both area and production. It is one of the most important food crop in

32. the semi and tropics of India, Africa. Australia, Argentina, mexico. In
India it is cultivated on large scale in Maharashtra, Gujrat, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka, Rajasthan and M.P.
Origin:
Sorghum is originated in Ethopia and South Asia. The progenitor of S. bicolar is
sorghum arundinaceum ( 2n=20)
Based on inflorescence and spiklet morphology there is five major races i.e.
Bicoalr, Guinea, Caudatum, Karir and Durra.
Classification-
Right from 16th
century there were number of classification for the genus
Sorghum. The famous among them is Snowden’s classification (1936) later
refined by Garber (1950) and by Dogget (1970).
SORGHUM The latest classification was done by Harlan and De Wet (1972).
1.Bicolor (B): Grain elongate, glumes clasping the grain which may be
completely covered or ¼ exposed.
2.Guinea (G): Grains flattened dorso-ventrally.
3.Caudatum(C): grains asymmetrical, glumes 1/2 the length of the grain.
4.Kaffir (K): Grains symmetrical (spherical), glumes clasping in varying length.
5.Durra (D): Grains rounded obovate, wedge shaped at the base and broadest
slightly above the middle; glumes very wide.
According to them, the cultivated sorghum Sorghum bicolor is divided in to five
basic races based on the coverage of glume on the grain
Botany:
Sorghum is annual/ perennial grass, the roots are adventitious and fibrous, stem
is erect and made up of nodes and internodes.The leaves are 7 and 28 arranged
alternating to opposite side with parallel venation. Panicle consists of spiklets in
pairs.the sessile is hermaphrodite and fertile while other pedicillate is sterile.

33. Emasculation:
A) Hand Emasculation:
Only the part of the penduncle is emasculated. Flowered tips and lower
branches are removed by clipping. About 50 florets that would flower on next
day are selected and emasculated and covered with suitable paper bag.
B) Hot Water Method:
In this method the sorghum head is immersed in water at 45 0 to 48 0C for 10
minutes, without injury to the stigma.
C) Plastic Bag Emasculation:
Sorghum heads are covered with plastic bag ton create high humidity in side the
bag. Under high humidity florets open, anther emerges, but shed no pollens and
the anther removed easily by tapping.
Pollination:
Pollination is done on next day between 9 to 10 a.m. all flower come to bloom.
Inserting and shading the head in the bag collect the pollen. Another technique
is clipping the heads early in the morning and placed in the boxes to flower in
protected place. The collected pollens are dusted over exposed stigma or the
pollen producing head brushed over emasculated head.
Breeding Objective:
1) High grain and fodder yield.
2) Early maturity
3) Resistance to drought, low HCN content, leafy, sweet juicy fodder.
4) Resistance to disease- Blight, downy mildew, rust, smut, charcoal, etc.
5) Resistance to insect pests- Midge, stem borer and shoot fly, etc
6) Bread making quality.
Breeding Procedures:
1) Pure Line Selection:
In this method superior land races are selected from local uniform variety and
grown as plant progenies in the next year. Uniform superior progenies

34. harvested and bulked as improved strain for further evaluation. In varietal
evaluation, if improved strain shows superiority over the existing variety , it is
released for commercial cultivation on large scale. E.g 1) M-35-1, 2) Sel-3, 3)
Yashda , 4) Maulee( RSLG-262).
2) Pedigree Method:
This method consists of hybridization between desirable complementary
parental lines, followed by selection of superior plants, in the segregating
generation, till homozygosity is achieved. i.e. F5-F6. The selected plants are
bagged to prevent out crossing varieties developed by pedigree method are
SPV-86 ( R-24 X R-16), SPV-504 (Swati) (SPV 86 X M-35-1), CSV -15 R, ( SPV-475 X
SPV-462)
3) Back Cross Breeding:
It is used to transfer one or few inherited traits from donor to another desirable
genotype ( recipient parent) resistance to disease like grain mold, downy
mildew, rust, smut, and resistance to insect pest like midge, shoot fly, stem
borer could be introduced in desirable strain by back cross breeding. Similarly
cytoplasmic genetic male sterility could also be introduced by this method.
4) Hybrid Breeding:
Seeds of hybrid sorghum are produced using cytoplasmic genetic male sterility
typically known as A, B and R line system. Kambine Kafir- 60 (m.s) was initial m.s
line is used in hybrid seed production.
Male sterile line is known as A line its maintainer is known as B line. Line A and
B are isogenic except that line A is male sterile line and B is male fertile. The
difference lines only in cytoplasm, where line A has sterile cytoplasm ands line B
has fertile cytoplasm. Any fertile line can be converted into male sterile by
backcross breeding method.
A) Maintaince of A, B and R Lines:

35. A planting A and B line in 4:2 ratios in isolated field Maintaince male sterile line
A. Seed produced on A line is male sterile. Line B is self fertile growing crop
isolation or bagging the heads of B line plants, maintains B line. Similarly line R
is also self fertile, is also multiplied by planting in isolated field.
In commercial seed production, i.e bulk production of A, B and R line is referred
as foundation seed production and production of A X R referred as certified
seed production.
A Line (msms) X B Line ( msms) = A line (msms)
Male Sterile X Male Fertile = Male Sterile
A Line ( msms ) X R Line ( MsMs) = ( Msms) Hybrid Seed
Male sterile X Male Fertile = Male Fertile
New hybrids can be developed by improving performance of ‘A’ and ‘R’ lines or
both by the back cross breeding method. Every year crossing programme of
restorers with promising male sterile lines is undertaken and hybrids are tested
for performance. If performance of particular hybrid found superior, it is
multiplied on large scale for commercial cultivation. The popular hybrids are
CSH-1, CSH-5, CSH-12, CSH-15 and CSH-16.
5) Resistance Breeding:
The resistance could be incorporated in given strain when desirable donor
present is available by back cross breeding. Effective identification of donor and
screening technique of mode of inheritance in needed, the characters controlled
by recessive gene could easily be transferred by back cross breeding than
character controlled by dominant genes. The important resistance source for
pest and disease are given below.
A) Pest Resistance:
Shoofly: IS-1034, 1054, 9136, 8314- Non preference for oviposition.
Stem Borer: IS-1054, 1034- Oviposition non preference
Midge: EC- 92792, DJ-6514, IS-18753 – Non Preference of host susceptibility is
dominant.
B) Disease Resistance:

36. Head Mold: CSV-4, CSV-5, and SPV-35- incomplete dominant.
Downy Mildew: CSV-4, CSV-5, SPV-105, and CSH-5 – Resistance is recessive.
Charcoal Rot: CSV -5, SPV-104,
Leaf Disease: 2219A, 2077A, CSH5, CSV-4, CSV-5, SPV-104, - Resistance is
recessive.
Rust: 2219A, 296A, CS-3541, CSH-5, - Resistance is dominant.
The plant types have generally higher degree of resistance to foliar diseases.
Breeding for Striga Resistance:
Striga or Witch weed is an important root parasite on sorghum and other
grasses. Strigol is stimulant produced by of host is required for germination of
host. The resistance reaction includes low production of stimulant and
mechanical barrier to haustorial penetration in the host plant.
Breeding for Forage Quality:
Sorghum is grown for grain and fodders the forage type varieties should high
tonnage, more leafiness, juiciness, sweetness, good palatability and higher
digestibility. Sorghum X Sudan grass is grown widely and has less problems of
hydrocynic acid content (HCN).
International and National Programmes:
The international crop research institute of semi arid tropics (CRISAT)
established in 1972 at Hyderabad as an international centre for improvement of
grain yield and quality in sorghum.
Sorghum variety - ICSV-112 (SPV-475) released as CSV-13 for general cultivation
in India.
ICRISAT is working with collaboration of NRCS ( National Research Centre on
Sorghum) at Nation level at Solapur for sacristy area.
ICAR initiated accelerated hybrid improvement project. The project first tile
release CSH-1 in 1964.

37. All India sorghum improvement project on sorghum was established in 1969 at
Hyderabad involving ICAR and State Agricultural Universities. The project has
involved hybrids and high yielding varieties at al India Level. In Maharashtra the
project officer are doing research at following universities on various aspects.
1. Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri.
2. Punjab Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola.
3. Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani.
In Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth research on sorghum is going on at
Agricultural Research Station at Mohol (Dist Solapur) as lead center for Rabi
Jowar and Agricultural Research Station Digras (Dist- Sangli) and Karad ( Dist –
Satara) as testing centres for Kharif Jawar.
Plant Breeding Practices in Bajara (Pearl Millet)
Bajara ( Pennisetum americanum) (L)( 2n=14) is stable food in
semiarid tropics. It is adapted for drought and poor soil fertility. In
world the Bajara crop ranks sixth in importance followed by wheat,
rice, maize, barley and jawar. India and Africa produce 92 % of
world population.
Bajara originated in WEST Africa from where it was imported into
India in the early days. The states growing bajara in large scale are
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
and Punjab.
World-africa, india, pak, usa, Europe
Origin:
Africa is considered to be centre of origin of bajara. The
genetic name pennisutum is derived two Latin words Penna meaning
feather and seta meaning bristles. The Pennisetum consist of six sub
species/progenitors as

38. 1) P. ramosum ( 2n=10)
2) P. americanum ( 2n=14)
3) P. parpureaum ( 2n=28)
4) P. macsaicum ( 2n=16,32)
5) P.orientate ( 2n=18,36,54)
6) P.scuamalatum ( 2n=54)
Several wild species have been used in crosses with pearl millet.
Botany:
It is tall growing, and producing number of tillers. Roots are
adventitious and fibrous; the stem is thin, round, greenish with
nodes and internodes. Leaf sheath completely enriches the stem.
The inflorescence is terminal, cylindrical and compact, spike having
10 to 50 cm length. Each spiklet consists of lower staminate and
upper bisexual flower. The whorl consists of 30 to 40 bristles
surrounded 2 to 5 spiklets. Each spikelet having two empty glumes
and two inner glumes. The bisexual and hermaphrodite flower has
broad lemma, three stamens, pelia, and single carpe, style dividing
into two branches. The ovary is unilocular containing single seed.
Flowering and Crossing:
It is highly cross-pollinated crop due to protogynous nature. The
style begins to appear 2 to 3 days after emergence of spike. First at
1/3 rd portion and gradually downward, and style remain receptive
for 1 to 2 days. Anther emerge after styles dry up. The anthers of
bisexual flower appear 2 to 3 day before those of staminate flowers.
The maximum emergence of style is between 9.00 a.m to 3.99 p.m.
while maximum opening of the flower occur between 10.00 a.m. to
2.00 p.m. and minimum between 3.00 and 6.00 p.m.
Selfing:
To ensure selfing spike may be bagged before emergence of the
stigmas. Two full from same plant one a few days older than other
and ready shed pollens could be bagged in the same bag for good
seed. Generally spikes in several stages of anther can be found on
the same time.
Emasculation:

39. Hand emasculation is laborious and difficult due to small size of
flowers and the late development of anthers in relation to stigma.
Protogynous nature of the flower suggests the easy method of
crossing without emasculation. In the lowermost part of the ear
head the styles appear very later. In the lowermost part of the ear
head the styles appear very late. This interval between appearance
of styles and dehiscence of anthers is more particularly in lowermost
region of the spike. Hence the spike emerged from the flag leaf is
selected for emasculation and upper 2/3 rd or 4/5 portion of ear
head is cut and remaining portion of the head is bagged
immediately.
Pollination:
It is always done in the morning after 2 to 3 days when styles
appear, fresh pollen grains collected from protected male parent in
petridish and dusted over the stigma of the bagged heads and
rebagged immediately. The pollination may be repeated 2-3 times till
the anthers of the same region show their appearance.
Breeding Objective:
1) High Grain Yield With
a. Well field compact head
b. More tillers
c. Bold grains and ripening uniformity
d. Earliness
e. Reduced plant height
f. Bristeled ear
2) High Forage Yield with Leafiness and Good Digestibility:
3) Resistance to Diseases:
a. Downy mildew – Resistance donor- Ex Bornue
b. Ergot-IP-517, IP-1956, IP-1533.
c. Drought resistance – J-1270
d. Fodder Quality : Napier- bajara hybrids E.g. K-677, D-1941.

40. Breeding Methods:
1) Mass Selection:
In this method desirable plants are selected from open pollinated
population and the seed from selected plants composited and
planted to initiate next cycle of selection. The criteria are usually
head characteristics, like compactness, length of ear, weight of
grain, uniformity of ripening etc. varieties developed- Jamnagar,
Jaint, Pusa moti, etc.
2) Hybrid Breeding:
It includes development of inbreds through inbreeding and pure line
selection, (J-88, J-104, K-560, K-559, etc) and adoption of
cytoplasmic genetic male sterility under standard three line system
(A, B, and R) to produce hybrid seed. CMS line ‘A’ is multiplied by
planting it with maintainer line B in isolated field (1000m). Seed set
on ‘A’ line is the male sterile. B and R lines are multiplied in isolated
field separately. Desirable R line is crossed with A line to produce
the F1 hybrid. The anthers of the pollinator ( R line) should coincide
with exertions of stigma of A line and the R lines should provide
pollens over long period to insure good seed setting.
Any fertile line can be sterilized and new male sterile can be
developed by back cross breeding method. The performance of the
hybrid is improved by improving performance of the hybrid is
improved by improving performance of parent lines, i.e. A line, R
line, or both.
Popular hybrids developed by cytoplasmic male sterility.
1. MH-179-821A X ICMP-451 (1987)
2. MH-169- 841A X D -23 (1988)
3. RHRBH- 8609 (Shradda) –RHRB-IA X RHRBI-138 (1990)
4. RHRBH -8924 (Saburi) – RHRBI-5A X RHRBI-458 (1995)
5. ICMH-451- 81 A X ICMP-451.
Population or Synthetics and Composites:
Synthetics are the populations that are synthesized by inter
pollination among the high GCA lines. The synthetics are
reconstituted at certain intervals by inter pollination among the

41. component lines and therefore Maintaince of components lines is
essential. E.g. ICMS-7703, ICMV-87901.
Composites are the populations produced by mixing seed of
phenotypically outstanding lines and encouraging open pollination in
isolated field. The components may be any number selected without
testing combining ability. Reconstitution never done in composites
varieties. E.g. WC-C-75, PSB-8, HC-4, RHR-1, ICTP-8203, etc.
Breeding for Disease Resistance:
1) Downey mildew – Ex Bornu (Resistance Source)
2) Ergot – IP-517, IP-1956, and IP-1533.
3) Drought Resistance: J-1270
Interspecific Hybrid:
The green fodder quality depends on more leaf number, thin stem,
earliness and high tillering, protein, and mineral matters. On the
other hand oxalic acid need to be minimum. The Interspecific
hybrids between napier grass ( P. purpurium -4n) X bajara ( P.
americanum- 2n ) are Napier bajara hybrids, the popular hybrids are
Desharat and Yashawant famous for high yield. These are also
known as elephant grass.
FINGER MILLET (Elusine coracana) (2n = 36) Ragi
The common name finger millet to derived from finger like
branching of panicle – Ragi is derived from Sanskrit worel Ragika.
Origin: According to vavilor – Africa
According to Decandole – India
Distribution: India, Africa, Pakistan.
Progenitors : E. indica is wild in India and Africa
E. stricta is wild only in Africa

42. Wild relatives : The genus Eleusine comprises of 11 species of which
6 are diploids and 5 are tetraploids. 1. Eleusine indica, 2. Eleusine
oligostachya, 3. E.tristachya , 4. E. poranansis ,5. E. jaegeri ,6. E.
flacifolia (2n = 36) 1. Eleusine coracana ,2. E. africana ,3. E.
longipoides ,4. E. verticillata ,5. E. cagopoides
Breeding objectives:
1. Higher yields 2. Early maturity 3. Better quality 4. Resistance to
diseases 5. Resistance to pests 6. Resistance to Abiotic stress
Breeding techniques
1. By introduction Indaf 5 Ragi from Karnataka.
2. By selection Pure line selection. Earlier varieties were all evolved
by pure line selection.
3. Hybridization and selection The African types are with long
fingers, bold grain with stiff straw. Further they are photosensitive
and have un even grain maturity. Because of this character they a re
not recommended for cultivation in India. The Indian types are with
short fingers, small grains and photo insensitive. The African types
are utilised in hybridization programme, to develop extra long
fingered varieties coupled with disease and drought resistance. The
Indian African cross derivatives are known as Indaf varieties which
are interspecific. Other state varieties E.g. Indaf 5 cauvery x IE 929
Indaf 9
4. Heterosis breeding : Artificial induction of male sterility through
use of gametocide, GA3, 2 -4-D are being attempted.
5. Mutation breeding : T20 - mutant from AKP - 7.
Practical achievements
Varieties - saroda, Kalyani, Simhadri, Padmavathi, Ratnagiri,
Godavari, Gauthami
Plant Breeding Practices in Sunflower

43. (Helianthus annus, 2n =2x=34)
Sunflower is an important oil seed crop after soybean and it account
for 12.5% of the oil production of the world. It oil content ranges
from 46to 52% and is of high quality noncolesteral and
anticolestotal properties leading sunflower countries are USSR,
Bulgaria, Canada and USA.
In India the crop was introduced in 1969 from USSR with for
promising introductions, EC68414, EC68415, and EC 69874. It is now
grown extensively in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and
Andhra Pradesh and is spreading fast in other state like
Punjab and Haryana.
Distribution: USA, Brazil, China, Argentina and India.
Progenitors: G. usuriensis G. tomentolla G. tabacina G gracilis
Glycine max is originated from G. usuriensis and G. tomentolla
Origin:
Central part of United State of America.
It comprises 67 species out of which H.annus and H. tuberosus are
cultivated as oil and food and plants respectively.
Botany:
The stem is typically unbranched have strong tap root system.
Leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, inflorescence is capitulum or
head numbers of flower vary from 700 to 3000. The flowers of outer
whorl are called ray florets. They have five elongated patels that are
united to strap like structure. Five anthers are united to farm a tube
inside the anther. There is style terminating in the stigams, which is
divided. The seed consist of seed coat endosperm and embryo.
Sunflower shows the phenomenon of heliotropism. In which the
developing head face east and west in morning and evening
respectively.
Floral Biology and Hybridization Technique:
Sunflower is highly cross-pollinated crop mainly through insect and
to a limited extent by wind. The flower opening starts from outer

44. side of the head and proceed towards the centre of the head bloom
with in 5 to 10 days, depending upon size and season. Anthers occur
5 to 8 a.m. the pollen remain viable for 12 hours and stigma remain
receptive for 2 to 3 days.
Emasculation:
A) Hand Emasculation:
Remaining the anther tube with forceps early in the morning does it.
Unemascualted flower are removed.
B) Without Emasculation:
Some times the crossing is done with out emasculation hybrid plants
are distinguished from selfed one on the basis of vigor or presence
of some market genes.
C) Chemical Emasculation:
Application of Gibberlic acid (100ppm) after bud ignition for three
days in the morning gives better results of emasculation.
Pollination:
Collecting pollen head that are bagged before flowering does it. It is
done in the same morning after emasculation. Pollen can be applied
small piece of cotton or camel hairbrush and is bagged again to
protect it from cross-pollination with insect and wind.
Breeding Objective:
1) High seed yield
2) Lodging resistance, dwarf plant type
3) High oil content
4) Early maturity
5) Tolerant to stress condition
6) Resistance to bird damage
7) Resistance to disease- leaf rot, root rot, stem rot, powdery
mildew.
8) Resistance to insect pest leaf eating caterpillar, grasshopper,
Jassids, etc

45. Breeding Methods:
Sunflower is highly cross-pollinated crop.
1) Mass Selection:
In this method phenotypically superior plants are selected and
harvested from a population and their seeds are mixed to continue
new variety- modern.
2) Hybridization:
Currently there is increased emphasis in development of sunflower
hybrid released in India in 1980. For production of hybrid seed
cytoplasmic genetic male sterile lines are available in isolated field
hybrid seed production programme is taken BSH-1 ( CMS 234 X RHA-
274).
3. Introduction-EC 39821 from Taiwan released as Co1
4. Pure line selection- Co1
Resistance Breeding:
It is important step in controlling disease. In India rust, alternaria,
leaf spot and various farm and root and stem rot caused by
Sclerotum, Rhizoctonia. Several wild species are reported to be
resistant which could be used as donor parent to develop resistant
varieties by back cross breeding.
Sunflower hybrids resistant to rust are MSFH-1 and MSFH-8.
Sunflower hybrids resistance to Downey mildew are LDMRSH-1,
LDMRSH-3, LDMRSH-4, and LDMRSH-12.
Sunflower genotypes resistant to blight are EC-132846, EC-132847
and EC-126184.
National Programme:
AICRP on sunflower with headquarter, university of Agriculture
science, Banglore.

46. Coordinating centres in Maharashtra – M.P.K.V, Rahuri, P.D.K.V,
Akola, A.R.S , Latur.
Plant Breeding Practices in Groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea, 2n=4x=40)
Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea, 2n =4x=40) is major oil seed crop in
India, occupies 45% of total seed area in the world and contributes
55 % of oil seed production. India ranks first in the world in terms of
both area and production. The productivity of groundnut is low and it
ranks 10th in worlds groundnut productivity.
The crop is widely cultivated in Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra,
Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Punjab.
Distribution: India, China, USA, Africa, South and South East Asia
Progenitor: Arachis monticola A – prostrata A – silvestres
Origin:
Groundnut has primary centre of origin Brazil. Similarly South
America, and Africa are considered as secondary centres of origin as
wide variability in the cultivated species. The cultivated species A.
Hypogaea probably originated from wild tetraploid species A
monticola and is most likely proginator of A. hypogaea.
Botany and Floral Biology:
Groundnut is herbaceous annual plant, basically interlineate in
growth habit. The habits are bunch ( erect) , semi spreading ( ovate)
and spreading ( prostate). The plant has tap root system consist of
numerous lateral roots. Being leguminous crop root nodules are
developed on roots that help fix atmospheric nitrogen. An
inflorescence products cataphylls at first node that give rise to
flower. The flower developed either above or below the ground level.
They are sessile orange to yellow in colour complete and
papilonaceous in nature. It is placed in end of the long calyx tube

47. having five sepals in gamosepalous condition with three lobes. The
stamens are 8-10 in number and only eight bear anthers. They are in
monoadephous condition. The stigma usually protrudes above the
anther level.
Flowering:
Groundnut is self –pollinated crop but out crossing may occur up to
2.5% . It is extremely difficult for crossing. The flower opens early
in the morning. i.e. 6-9 a.m. and anther dehisce 1 to 2 hours before
opening the flower. Next day all flower parts except small sessile
ovary withers. Normally the flowering period last 3 to 6 weeks in
case of bunch and 6 to 8 weeks in case of spreading types. After
fertilization gynophores i.e. stalk of the ovary, elongate forming peg,
curved downward pushing the ovary into the soil where the pod
develops.
Classification-
The genus Arachis is subdivided in to the following seven sections.
(Gregory and Gregory, 1973).
1.Arachis 2n-Arachis villosa 20,A.batizoccoi 20
2. Erectoides -A.tuberosa 20 , A.paragurensis 20
3. Rhizomatasae - A.glabarata 40 , A.hagen beckii 40
4. Extra nervosae - A. Villosulicarpa 20 , A.marginata 20
5. Triseminate - A.pusilla 2n = 20
6. Caulorhizae -A. repens 2n = 20
Emasculation:
It is done in late afternoon or evening between 5.00 to 6.00 p.m the
flower buds which will open on the next day morning are selected
for emasculation. The flower bud is gently held in left hand and with
the help of forceps, the standard petal, wings and keels are opened
and all anthers are removed. Petals are placed in their original
position to serves as the protective covering on the stigma. Hence,
the bagging may or may not be done in order to avoid damage to the
flower.

48. Pollination:
In the next day morning between 5.00 to 8.00 a.m. the flowers of
selected parents are directly used for pollination or pollen grains are
collected in petri dish and applied over stigma of emasculated flower
with the help of hair brush. The pollinated flower bagged and
labelled. After fertilization gynophores starts elongating. Tagging is
done after identification as the pods are developed below the soil
surface.
Breeding Objectives:
Breeding varieties with
1. High pod yield
2. Early maturity
3. High shelling percentage with high oil content
4. Resistant to Tikka, bud necrosis, Rust and Virus.
5. Resistant to Leaf minor, White grub, Aphid and Thrips.
6. Tolerant to drought and cold.
7. Erect type plant with dormancy period.
Breeding Methods:
1) Introduction:
The varieties developed and released in other states or counties
imported and after evaluation may be released for commercial
cultivation. For example:
a. UF 70-103 introduction from university of florida
b. M-13 introduction from Ludhiana- Punjab
c. Robout introduction from Nigeria.
2) Selection:
From local land races desirable types suited to the environmental
conditions are selected and evaluated along with existing varieties if
found superior selected strains released as improved varieties.

49. a. JL-24 ( Phule Pragati) selection from 94943.
b. Kopergoan 3 selection from local collection.
c. Karad 4-11 selection from local collection.
d. ICGS 11 selection from Robout 33-1.
3) Pedigree Method:
The elite lines are mated to produce the desirable progeny to
combine deisirbale characters from two different varieties and
selections are made F3 and onward generations for yield and
desirable characters. The selected strains after attaining
homozygosity evaluated in multi location trails and if founds
superior released as improved variety, E.g. SB-XI ( AH4298 X 4354),
Koyana ( M13 X Sulamit), Gaug 1 (AK 10 X AK 124).
4) Mutation Breeding:
Natural mutation or induced mutation can also be used in
development of improved varieties.
1. TMV 10 natural mutation from Argentina
2. TG 1 ( VIKRAM) X ray induced mutation from Spanish.
3. TAG 24 X-ray induced mutation.
4. TG 26 X-ray induced mutation.
International Crop Improvement:
ICRISAT establish 1972, Patancheru, Hyderabad, varieties developed
ICGS 1, ICGS11, ISCG44 and ICGS FDRS 10.
National Centres:
1. Directorate of oil seed research (DOR) Hyderabad
2. National centre for groundnut (NRCG) Junagad, Gujarat.
Conduct multidisciplinary research on groundnut with collaboration
of AICRPO centres in the country.
AICRPO centres working on groundnut are ARS Digras, M.P.K.V,
Rahuri, ARS Jargon, P.D.K.V, Akola, M.K.V, Parbhani ARS Latur and
BARC in Maharashtra.

50. SESAME (Sesamum indicum) (2n=26) known
till,ellu
It is an ancient oil seed crop of tropics and warm sub-tropics. It is
also called as gingelly.
Origin: India, and Ethopia (Africa)
Distribution: India, Pakistan, Africa, China, Mexico, Iran, Iraq etc.
Progenitors: Sesamum angustifolium S. radiatum S. alatum
Wild species utilised in breeding programme
1. S.alatum 2n = 26 Resistant to phyllody S.alatum x S.indicum
alatum is having dormancy.
2. S.malabaricum (2n = 26) Occurs in Travancore of Kerala. It freely
crosses with cultivated gingelly. Oil content is low 32% It is utilised
to induce male sterility in cultivated sesame.
3. S.laciniatum 2n = 32 Tolerant to phyllody, drought and jassid
resistant. Fertile auto allopoly ploid produced by crossing S.indicum
x S.laciniatum Sterile, Double.
4. S.prostratum occurs in S.India (2n = 26) Tolerant to drought.
Breeding objectives
1. Breeding high yielding varieties tolerant to drought. 2. Breeding
white seeded varieties Finest quality of oil is obtained from white
seeded lines. 3. Development of mono stemmed varieties. By this
more population per unit area and yield can be increased.
Monostemmed varieties are low yielders. 4. Development of
multicapsule / axil and multicarpellary varieties. 5. Rice fallow

51. varieties : Shorter in duration. 6.
Non- shattering varieties African lines. 7. Resistant to disease
Powdery mildew;
Breeding Methods :
1. Introduction : African lines. 2. Pure line selection. TMV6 -
Andhra local. 3. Hybridization and selection. a) Inter varietial b)
Inter specific : Male sterile lines evolved by crossing with
S.malabaricum. 4. Population improvement 5. Poly ploidy
breeding 6. Heterosis breeding Epipetalous nature makes
emasculation and crossing easier Use of CMS lines is also being
attempted. 7. Embryo rescue technique. Varieties Gouri, Madhavi,
Rajeshwari, Swetha
SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctories) (2n=24)
Safflower is an important oil seed crop of India. The oil is edible but
best used in industry. It is also used for its reddish dye called
carethamine extracted from florets oil is excellent source of
unsaturated fatty acid. Oil content is 32 per cent of which above 72
per cent is Linoleic the factor which reduces the blood chotesterol. It
belongs to the family compositeae
Origin: Africa and Afghanistan
Distribution:- Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, USA, Egypt middle east
in India, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka together
accounts for more than 90 per cent of country’s area
Progenitor Carthamus oxycantha C. lunatus
Related species : The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in
many parts of Punjab. It is a dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming
small achenes. The oil content is 15 to 16 percent

52. Classification of safflower : Safflower can be grouped in to two
broad categories.
1. The outer involucral bracts spinose, lanceolate mainly cultivated
for oil. Flowers yellow in colour.
2. Involucral bracts moderately spined or spineless which are
cultivated mostly for the dye than the spiny types. Flowers orange in
colour.
Breeding objectives :
1. Breeding for high oil content : Normal oil content is 32% of which
72% is linoleic acid, the factor which reduces blood cholesterol. Oil
content is negatively correlated with yield. Wild species of
C.oxycanthus having 28% oil were utilised in hybridization
programme to increase yield and oil content but success was not
achieved.
2. Breeding for non-spiny varieties with high oil content. A very
limited success was achieved in safflower
3. Breeding varieties having thin shell Thin shelled varieties have
high oil content.
4. Breeding varieties for dry land conditions. Under dry land
conditions the spiny nature will be more pronounced. How ever dry
land varieties with less pronounced spines were evolved. E.g. K.l.
5. Breeding varieties resistant to pest and diseases : Pests like
Prodenia and Heliothis are important pests. The wild species
C.oxycanthus is moderately resistant to pests. This is being utilised
in breeding programme.
Breeding methods:
The breeding methods are similar to that of sunflower

53. MESTA, KENAF BIMLI JUTE, DECCAN HEMP Hibiscus cannabinus
(2n=36)
ROSELLE / JAMAICAN SORREL Hibiscus sabdariffa
(2n=36, 72)
Both the species are important jute supplements and show wide
adaptability unlike jute. At present both the species are known as
Mesta.
Place of origin : H.cannabinus have its possible origin in Africa and
H.sabadariffia - Asia.
Kenaf is used for making ropes, twines, fishing nets and also in the
paper pulp making from kenaf stalks especially fine paper, structural
boards.
H.cannabinus : mesta
Compared to jute mesta is of inferior in quality in respect of
fineness, lusture, and colour. Mesta varieties show poor performance
in spinning because the fibre is coarse, stiff, brittle and irregular in
cross section mesta alone cannot be spun in jute machines unless it
is mixed with jute in some proportion.
H.sabadarifra var.altissima (Roselle )
Roselle is an useful substitute to jute. It is also called as Siamijute
two types are available.
i. Tall non branching types cultivated for fibre.
ii. Dwarf, bushy wild type used as green and edible calyx as
pickle.
Breeding objectives :
1. Breeding of high yielding short duration mesta varieties (Similar
to Jute) 2. Breeding for quality fibre (Similar to Jute) 3. Breeding
for pest and disease resistant varieties.
Breeding Procedures:
Same as Jute.

54. JUTE Corchorus sp (2n=14) Tiliaceae
The genus Corchorus includes about 40 species. In India only 8
species occur. Two cultivated species are
1-C.capsularis : White jute 50 races occur in this.
2-C.olitorius : Tossa jute 8 races occur in this.
Among the two olitorius yields more fibre/unit area. The fibre is
finer, softer, more, lustrous and less rooty than capsularis. Olitorius
occupies about 25% of jute area in India. One of the draw backs of
Tossa jute is pre mature flowering if the varieties are sown earlier in
March-April in early monsoon rains. The pre mature flowering leads
to profuse branching and deterioration in fibre quality. Capsularis
strains are characterised by a single flush of flowering at the end of
single vegetative period. Based on maturity, the varieties in
Capsularis are divided in to
Early - Flowering in July
Medium - August
Late - September.
Breeding objectives: 1. Breeding for high yielding short duration
jute varieties. Early varieties are generally low yielders whereas
late varieties are high yielders. So to combine high yield with
earliness is one of the main objectives. Higher photo synthetic
capacity with increased lamina length, breadth, petiole length.
2. Breeding for quality fibre In jute quality is negatively, correlated
with yield. The quality characters are a) Fibre length. b) Fibre

55. strength c) Fibre colour d) Lustre e) Percentage and quality of
retting
3. Breeding for pest and disease resistant varieties -In pests, stem
borer and aphids cause greater damage and in diseases
Macrophomena is major
4. Breeding varieties for high seed yield : Since jute is cut for fibre
at 50% flowering stage, it is essential to reserve some plants for
production of seeds.
5. Breeding for olitorius varieties having non-shattering habit
coupled with non-pre flowering habit.
Breeding Methods:
1. Germplasm building and Utilisation Central Jute Technological
Research Institute, Calcutta is maintaining the Jute collections. This
shows wide range of variability thus offering a great scope for
improvement by selection and hybridsation.
2. Introduction : Introduced short duration varieties are Jap green,
Jap red, Jaichung sudan green.
3. Hybridization and selection
a) Inter vareital: Multiple crossing and selection are followed both in
olitorius and capsularis improvement. In olitorius improved
varieties are JRO 524, JRO 7885. In capsulanis JRL 412, JRL 919
Since yield and quality are negatively correlated a balance must be
struck in breeding for improved varieties.
b) Inter specific cross: -Attempts were made by straight cross
mixed pollen method, Stigmatic paste method, self anther paste
method, stigma cut method polyploidy breeding. But none of them
proved successful. Difference in embryo endosperm growth is the
reason 4. Mutation breeding : Using x rays useful jute mutants were
obtained at Calcutta JRC 7447 and Rupali two varieties

56. CASTOR (Ricinus communis) (2n=20)
It is an oil seed crop. It belong to the family Euphorbiaceac. Its oil is
mainly used as lubricant, in industry or as a medicinal purpose. It
requires warm climate
Origin: Africa
Distribution: African countries (Egypt), China, India, middle East
etc. In India Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra
Classification: Monotypic, all varieties of castor from giant
perennials to short internode dwarf have the same chromosome
number.
Zugovosky (1962) has described three species in the genus Ricinus
1. R. communis 2. R. macrocarpus 3. R. microcarpus
But this is not accepted by Botanists.
There are sub species which are considered to be ecological
extreme varieties i.e. poly morphic of cultivated type. They are - R.
communis subsp persicus (Persian) ssp.chinensis ( chinese species)
, ssp. zanzi barensis ( Zanzibar) , ssp. sanguinens (Crimson species)
,ssp. africanus (African) , ssp. mexicanus (Mexican)
Red castor varieties (Popova 1930) Subsp gibsoni subsp
cambogenisis
Breeding objectives :
1. Long duration varieties for dry lands 2. Short duration high
yielding varieties suitable for irrigated mixed cropping conditions
3. Breeding non shattering spineless varieties Baker variety of USA
Non - Shattering. 4. Breeding for insect resistance Semi looper,
jassid. Hopper burn - serious in dry land varieties. Triple bloom -
TMV 5. - Triple bloom condition gives resistance. 5. Breeding
varieties with low ricinin content.
Breeding Methods:

57. 1. Introduction. Hospet varieties. Russian lines. 2. Selection a)
Pureline selection b) Mass selection 3. Hybridization and selection
TMV 6. (VP 1 x RC 962) 4. Population improvement By using
recurrent selection technique. 5. Mutation breeding Aruna castor
SA2 Natural Mutant from TMV 1. 6. Heterosis breeding GAUCH - 1
100 % pistillate lines. Geneic male sterility Temperature plays a
major role. GCH 4
Plant Breeding Practices in Cotton (Gossypium spp)
India possessed the flourishing expert trade in cotton and cotton
fabrics in early historic time. India now grows largest acreage of
cotton than any country in the world. In India cotton is cultivated
from he lower Himalayas in north to the extreme southern tip, but
90% of the acreage is in southern India.
The per acre yield in India is low as cotton is planted mostly at
beginning of monsoon and is dependent upon the destruction of
monsoon and is dependent upon the low soil fertility , lack of
fertilization and poor cultured. Practises, major states growing
cotton are M.S, Gujarat, Karnataka, Punjab, M.P, Andhra,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu in India.
Distribution: China, USA, India, Pakistan, Egypt.
Progenitors: Gossypium africanum, G. raimondii, Gossypium
africanum – reached India by traders and travelers and
differentiated into two species G. herbaceum and G. arboretum
Cultivated Species:
I. Asiatic cottons or old world cotton (Diploid cotton – 2n = 26)
1. G. arboreum –
2. G. herbaceum –

58. II. New world cotton (Tetraploid cottons – 2n = 52)
3. G. hirsutum – American / upland cotton
4. G. barbadense – Egyption / sea island cotton
G. hirsutum is predominant species which contributes about 90% to
the current world production. Besides cultivated species there are
about 46 wild species India is the only country where all the 4
cultivated species are grown for commercial cultivation
Origin: Cotton belongs to genus Gossypium. The genus has 35
diploid (ABCDEF genomes) and 6 tetraploid species out of these only
two diploid and two tetraploid species are categorized as cultivated.
Sr.No
Botanical
Name
Chromosome
No Genome Remarks
1 G.hebacium 2n=26 A1A1
Deshi or old
world
cotton
2 G.arboreum 2n=26 A2A2
Deshi or old
world
cotton
3 G.hirsutum 2n=52 A1A1D1D1
American or
new world
cotton
4 G.barbadense 2n=52 A2A2D2D2
American or
new world
cotton
The new world tetraploid species are allapolyploids, which
originated by hybridization between old world and the new world
diploid species.
Diploid old world species X Diploid new world species
2n = 26 (AA) 2n = 26 (DD)
F1 2n=26 (AD)
Chromosome doubled 4n=52 (AADD)
Tetraploid new world species
Gossypium hirsutum was first time introduced into Bombay in 1790
and most early introductions failed due to attack of Jassids and leaf

59. minor. During recent years many agricultural varieties are
developed. New varieties originated from crosses involving older
varieties races or species.
The cultivated new world Allotetraploid cotton species dominate world cotton production Gossypium
barbadense is known for extra log fine and strong fibre. Cultivated Gossypium hirsutum upland cotton
accounts for major world production.
Hybridization:
Normally pollen shed directly on the stigma when anthers open.
Pollen is rarely wind born, as it is heavy and sticky. Cross –
pollination to the extent of 5 to 30 % is possible by insects, mostly
honey bees.
For hybridization emasculation is done one day earlier of the flower
opening. Corolla is removed by hand or cut away with scissors. The
stamens are removed with forceps. Ripe anthers are collected from
pollen parent in straw tube and slipped over emasculated stigma and
stigma immediately enclosed with bract by wire. Similarly, ripe
anthers can be rubbed on the stigma of the emasculated flower. The
pollination is usually done a day after emasculation. The
emasculation may be done
1) By taking circular cut at the base and piercing needle through
staminal tube or 2) Removed of anthers by pointed forceps. It is also
be done by thumb and nail method and instead of bagging small
piece of straw tube inserted over stigma of emasculated flower and
tied along with bracts with thread.
Breeding Objectives:
1. High yield and early maturity.
2. Resistant to disease and pests
3. Breeding for staple length, fiber strength , fineness of fiber.
4. Increased lint to seed ratio.
Breeding Methods:
1) Introduction :
Cambodia cotton in 1906 from America, Andrews from sea Island.
2) Pure Line Section:

60. Pure line selection is practised for maintainers of genetic purity of
existing varieties and development of new by selection with in
hybrid population. Pure lines varieties developed one Ganga-1, CC-2,
MCU-5, SRT-1, Eknath, Sanjay.
3) Pedigree Method:
This method practised by crossing two complementing parental
lines. In the early generations the individual both plant progenies
are grown as in the self pollinated crops and selection is practised
both between and within rows for favourable traits. In later
segregating generations promising lines for plant type, insect pest
and disease varieties. Varieties : Laxmi, PKV-81, KOP-203.
4) Heterosis Breeding:
India is created first country where hybrid cotton (H4) was used on
commercial scale in 1970 on seed production by hand emasculation.
Latter on number of hybrids were released for commercial
cultivation.
E.g. H4- Gujarat 67 X American Nectariless (Irrigated)
Godavari – Buri Nectariless X MCU -5 (Rainfed)
NHH-44 – Becaneri Nermax X AC-738.
Varlaxmi – Laxmi X SB 1085 -6
Using cytoplasmic genetic male sterility can also produce the hybrid.
so the tedious task of hand emasculation can be avoided but
pollination is done manually to increase the seed set. Keeping of
honeybee and also hand pollination used to facilitate pollination in
hybrid seed production programmes. E.g. Hybrid AKH – 468 ( AK-32
X DHY-286-1)
Resistance Breeding:
When suitable donor parent available the resistant varieties are
developed by back cross breeding.
Bacterial Blight:
PS-10 (Donor Parent)

61. Bollworms and Jassids:
Khandra-2, bari-1007 (Donor Parent)
Genetic Engineering (Biotechnology) :
Insect cause more damage to cotton than any other crop. Cotton
growers need reliable insect control system that does not involve
time consuming application, expensive chemicals and elimination of
beneficial insect so Bilt in genetic resistance is the only solution.
The best source for these genes is the bacteria, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) products insecticides properties, which toxic to
insects but is is non toxic to humans and animals. It is highly
effective against most important cotton insects as budwarm,
bollworm, pink bollworm etc. Monsanto agricultural company of
America discovered to transfer single gene in cotton plant from Bt.
The human and animal digest the protein smaller to other proteins.
When gene come in contact of insect proteins degradation of
proteins take place, causing the death of insect. Morasses of USA has
developed the cotton variety resistant bollworm complex known as
‘Bolgard’ is completely resistant is in commercial use.