1. ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE PIG PRODUCTION

2. ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP) pig production This presentation has been adapted for use on shareview Full version available free from ciwf.org/gap on DVD-ROM Full version includes embedded video clips and interactive animation DVD-ROM also includes film, book and lecturers’ notes GAP Pigs DVD-ROM

5. Worldwide, 1.1 billion pigs are raised for meat each year CHAPTER 1 natural behaviour & production systems

6. Pigs are descended from the wild boar ANCESTRY  Dale Arey/CIWF

7. ANCESTRY Some breeds have been developed for hot climates like these small black Iberian pigs Some breeds have been developed for cold climates like these hairy Mangalicas

8. ANCESTRY Some traditional breeds still closely resemble their wild boar ancestors like these Tamworth crosses Most pigs used in production are based on these Large White x Landrace crosses Pigs of all breeds have inherited most of the behaviours of the wild boar

9. SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR Pigs naturally live in social groups of 2-4 sows, often sisters or otherwise related, along with their offspring

10. MATERNAL CYCLE Nest away from group Return with piglets to group Suckle young Gradually wean  Dale Arey/CIWF  Marek Spinka  Fiona Chambers of Fernleigh Free-Range

11. ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT Pigs have evolved to live in a complex environment

12. browsing grazing rooting  Marek Spinka  Marek Spinka FEEDING BEHAVIOUR Pigs have evolved a range of foraging strategies to live in that environment

13. DIURNAL BEHAVIOUR The day is divided between periods of foraging (for up to nine hours a day) and resting

14.  MAEP/CIWF THERMOREGULATORY BEHAVIOUR Huddling for warmth Wallowing for skin care and cooling Pigs mainly control their temperature through behaviour Shade Film of wallowing behaviour follows 

15. PLAY BEHAVIOUR Young pigs also use their environment for recreation

16. INTENSIVE PRODUCTION some intensive systems fail to satisfy behavioural needs of pigs Dry sows Farrowing sows Weaners Growing pigs Could these systems be modified to meet behavioural needs?

17. MODERN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS methods of providing behavioural needs of pigs Foraging Secluded nesting Comfortable rest Separation of dunging and lying areas

18. EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS methods of providing behavioural needs of pigs Shelter Protection from predators Temperature control Posts for rubbing Film of post-rubbing behaviour follows 

22. PREGNANT (DRY) SOWS tether stall – another confinement system Film of bar-biting behaviour by tethered sow follows 

23. SOWS IN STALLS health issues Possible explanations for health problems suffered by sows in stalls Health problem Weak bones Leg problems Urinary disorders Possible explanation Lack of exercise Lack of exercise Unable to excrete away from lying area

25. SOWS IN STALLS welfare issues What abnormal behaviours are observed as a result of this close confinement and hunger? In addition, dry sows are fed once a day on a maintenance ration which leaves them feeling hungry See next slide

26. STEREOTYPIES bar-biting This sow may be hungry, but is unable to forage. This may be a displaced feeding behaviour. Unlike normal feeding, this is very repetitive and cannot fill her stomach. Film of bar-biting behaviour follows 

27. What are the key features of stereotypic behaviour? What kind of stereotypy is this? What other kinds are there? What causes stereotypies? Bar-biting Sham chewing, excess drinking etc Frustration of natural behaviours Repetitive and apparently devoid of function STEREOTYPIES

28. STEREOTYPIES sham-chewing Sham-chewing is also thought to be caused by frustration, boredom and hunger Film of sham-chewing behaviour follows 

29. STEREOTYPIES excessive drinking How could you find out whether this drinking was excessive? Compare water intake of this sow with one that was completely satiated and not frustrated This is another form of stereotypy Film of excessive drinking behaviour follows 

30. STEREOTYPIES IN BARREN PENS bar-biting sham-chewing tongue rolling Stereotypies can also occur in pens where there is no bedding to occupy the sows and provide gut fill Film of these three behaviours follows 

31. APATHY Another response to confinement and frustration This sow might be resting. How would one distinguish apathetic behaviour from natural resting behaviour? Test how responsive she is to different stimuli like cold water or novel food Film of possibly apathetic behaviour follows 

33. The same is true for boars which in many countries are not provided with bedding GOOD PRACTICE providing resources for natural behaviour

34. “ (7) To satisfy their hunger and given the need to chew, all dry pregnant sows must be given a sufficient quantity of bulky or high-fibre food as well as high-energy food.” Council Directive 2001/88/EC 23 rd October 2001 EU REGULATIONS requirement for high fibre food

37. CHAPTER 3 avoiding aggression in dry sows  Dale Arey / CIWF

40. AGGRESSION DURING FEEDING free-range sows feeding with less aggression Film of mild dominance behaviour follows  Why is aggression over food milder in the following film ?

42. AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMS electronic sow feeders photos and video  ASAB Each sow wears a transponder. In the feeding stall, a computer provides each sow with an individual ration Film of use of electronic sow feeder follows 

43. AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMS electronic sow feeders photos and video  ASAB What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system? Advantages Sows free from harassment in stall Individual sows can be given extra food if needed Can be run automatically Disadvantages Sows cannot feed simultaneously as they would normally Aggression can occur outside the stall Sows not occupied searching for main food supply

44. Feeding Release AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMS feeding stalls In this system, the sows have access to a straw area and are locked in the stalls just at feeding time Film of use of feeding stalls and subsequent release follows 

45. AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMS feeding stalls What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system? Advantages Sows free from harassment in stalls Individual sows can be given extra food if needed Sows can be fed simultaneously Disadvantages Expensive to set up Sows don’t have to search for their food

46. Top view Front view Food is delivered slowly over longer periods. Sows that bully others out of their place lose out because food builds up in their own feed space AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDING trickle feed systems

47. AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDING trickle feed systems What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system? Disadvantages Aggression might still be a problem Individual sows cannot be given extra food Sows don’t have to search for their food Advantages Sows feed simultaneously Aggression minimal since sows occupied in own stations Feeding process can occupy sows for longer

48. AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDING scatter-feeding systems What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?  Dale Arey/CIWF Film of scatter feeding follows  Advantages Sows feed simultaneously Aggression minimal since food dispersed Feeding process naturally occupies sows for a long time Extra fibre consumed at same time Disadvantages Aggression might still be a problem Individual sows cannot be given extra food

49.  Colin Seddon / CIWF What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system? Food is automatically dumped from the feeders at the top of the picture AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDING dump-feeding systems Similar to previous system, though food less well dispersed

50. AGGRESSION AT MIXING Another major cause of aggression is mixing sows that are unfamiliar with each other

51. CASE STUDY - STRESS AT MIXING College farm experiences infertililty problems  Colin Seddon / CIWF System worked well for Meishan cross sows mixed in large enriched pen%. However the meat was too high in fat content for the UK market so they switched to Large White x Landrace crosses. Unfortunately sow fertility suffered as a result of stress, perhaps caused by aggression. They switched to housing sows in small groups and try to keep sows together in original groups to minimise stress

54. MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR nesting in wild boar  BBC Motion Gallery Film of nesting behaviour in wild boar sow follows 

56.  Marek Spinka FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING Why is the risk of crushing high with modern breeds? Sows are larger; litters larger, so piglets smaller

57. FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING 1. Sows respond naturally to a piglet’s squeal How does the sow’s behaviour reduce the risk of crushing? Film of Hungarian sow’s response to a piglet’s squeal follows 

58. FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING 2. Sows check through the bedding and remove piglets before lying down. The sow needs plenty of space to be able to lie down carefully. How does the sow’s behaviour reduce the risk of crushing?  Film of Hungarian sows checking through the bedding before lying down follows

59. FARROWING CRATES Most sows are housed in farrowing crates prior to giving birth Farrowing crates are designed to reduce piglet crushing by slowing down the movements of the sow Film of sow in farrowing crate trying to lie down follows 

62. What are the risks of frustrating normal interactions between the sow and her piglets? Sows in farrowing crates are more likely to savage their young. The risk of this may be increased if the sow cannot make normal contact FRUSTRATED MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR interaction with young Shortly after giving birth, sows naturally sniff their newborn piglets. This helps to create a bond between them Film of sow trying to make contact with newborn piglet follows 

65. photos  Marek Spinka ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATE Swedish group farrowing system The sows have a communal straw area with individual boxes to farrow in

66. photo  Marek Spinka ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATE How far does this system tie in with natural behaviour? Differences Sows cannot find an entirely isolated spot to nest Risk of two sows nesting in same box Similarities Nesting material readily available Sows can nest separately Piglets can mix once large enough to escape nest-box

68. ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATE outdoor free-range farrowing huts Each sow has a separate hut to farrow in The barriers contain very young piglets in the huts. In the UK, 35% of piglets are produced outdoors

71. SOW AND PIGLET MORTALITIES UK figures comparing outdoor & indoor herds UK averages for 2000-2004 (calculated from Meat and Livestock Commission Pig Yearbooks 2001-5) Can these results be explained? Year ending September Outdoor herds Indoor herds Sow mortality annually (%) 2.84 5.92 Piglets: Pigs born dead per litter 0.79 0.96 Mortality of pigs born alive (%) 9.46 11.60 Pigs reared per litter 9.74 9.64 Pigs reared per sow per year 21.14 21.49

72. UK SOW AND PIGLET MORTALITIES possible explanations for figures Feature Lower free-range sow mortality Fewer free-range pigs born dead Lower mortality for free-range piglets More outdoor pigs reared per litter More indoor pigs reared per sow per year Possible explanation/s Use of farrowing crate can lead to higher sow death-rate Stress of farrowing crate can delay birth, increasing mortality Savaging rates may be higher with farrowing crates. Free-range sows bred for good mothering abilities Lower mortality for free-range pigs Indoor sows had slightly higher frequency of litters

74. CHAPTER 5 avoiding teeth clipping in piglets

75. TEETH CLIPPING why it is carried out As soon as they are born, piglets compete to select a teat on the sow’s udder to which they remain attached until weaning Piglets suckle own teat Why do piglets compete for teats? The older and stronger piglets try to select the anterior (front) teats that tend to produce more milk Why do the front teats produce more milk? It is probably an evolutionary strategy to ensure some piglets survive when food is short. When food is plentiful, the sow can produce enough milk for all her piglets.

76. TEETH CLIPPING why it is carried out Piglets are born with sharp incisor teeth which they use to fight for the best teat and then to defend their teat This defence can cause injuries to other piglets and also to the sows udder How do the piglets compete for teats? Vigorous teat defence © Dale Arey

80. TEETH CLIPPING how it can be reduced or prevented If injuries do become a problem a less invasive technique is to use teeth grinders Grinders have a small abrasive wheel designed to blunt the sharp tip of the incisors This procedure is likely to cause less pain and is less likely to leave the teeth open to infection Tooth clipping is banned in several countries including Denmark and Germany which only allow tooth grinding Tooth grinding is still a painful mutilation. Routine tooth clipping and grinding are both banned throughout the EU Farmer clipping teeth

81. CASE STUDY enriched indoor production, Schleithal, France If injuries occur, the farmer uses a teeth grinder This farm does not clip teeth

82. CASE STUDY organic production, Eastbrook farm, UK This farm uses traditional breeds like Saddlebacks that have slightly smaller litters and the sows maintain condition. The farm does not tooth clip

83. “ Neither tail docking nor reduction of corner teeth must be carried out routinely but only where there is evidence that injuries to sows' teats or to other pigs' ears or tails have occurred. Before carrying out these procedures, other measures shall be taken to prevent tail biting and other vices taking into account environment and stocking densities (our emphasis). For this reason inadequate environmental conditions or management systems must be changed.” Annex to Council Directive 91/630/EEC EU REGULATIONS REQUIRE:

85. CHAPTER 6 avoiding castration in male piglets

86. CASTRATION Why it is carried out Shortly after birth, male piglets testes are removed This is because when they become sexually mature, they can leave an odour in the meat known as ‘boar taint’ which some people find unpleasant Some meat buyers insist that farmers castrate male pigs

87. CASTRATION How it is carried out The testes are removed through slits in the scrotum made with a scalpel Piglet about to be castrated Anaesthetics are rarely used even though the procedure causes severe pain Some people argue that it is the handling of pigs which is stressful, not the castration itself. How do we know the procedure causes pain? see next slides

88. After Weary et al 1998 IS CASTRATION MORE STRESSFUL THAN HANDLING? Vocal responses of castrated piglets were compared with those of piglets which were similarly handled but without castration. What do the results show?

89. (after Wemelsfelder & van Putten 1985) IS CASTRATION MORE STRESSFUL THAN HANDLING? The frequency (Hz) of vocal responses of piglets was measured at various stages of castration. What do these results show?

91. CASE STUDY enriched indoor production, Schleithal, France The farmer therefore uses a local anaesthetic before castration The buyers of these pigs insist on castration because of the risk of boar taint in the meat Anaesthetics provide short-term pain relief Analgesics are also needed to provide long-term pain relief

96. CHAPTER 7 avoiding early weaning

101. EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare This behaviour of early-weaned piglets is called belly nosing  ASAB Film of belly-nosing in early-weaned piglets follows 

102. EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare Belly nosing.  ASAB Belly-nosing resembles the way in which piglets massage the sow’s udder prior to suckling Film of piglet massaging sow’s udder follows 

103. Belly-nosing also continues in older pigs. Naturally they wouldn’t be weaned until 13-17 weeks old. It is thought to be a sign of frustration Belly-nosing is less common in enriched environments with plenty of straw. Why might this be? Belly-nosing is a displaced foraging behaviour. Providing plenty of foraging material may help the weaning process. Film of belly-nosing in older pigs follows  EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare

104.  Marek Spinka EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare What are the likely causes of these problems? Problems with early weaning Belly nosing Digestive problems Weight loss or growth check Increased risk of disease Increased use of antibiotics - desire to suckle - sudden change in diet - diet change and digestive problems - lowered immunity caused by stress - lowered immunity

106. CASE STUDY loose-housed farrowing system, Sweden Piglets can escape from the hut when bigger They mix with the other piglets The sow is removed at weaning Sows farrow in groups photos  Marek Spinka

107. CASE STUDY – LATER WEANING organic production Eastbrook farm, UK Wean at 8 weeks or later (organic rules state minimum 40 days) Use breeds like saddlebacks (left) that have better fat reserves and produce slightly smaller litters so they can wean later

109. CHAPTER 8 avoiding tail-docking and tail biting

110. TAIL-BITING This pig’s tail has been bitten by one or more of her companions

112. TAIL-BITING the problems it causes Seemingly innocent nibbling can rapidly spread through the whole group and take on the resemblance of cannibalism The wounds can cause considerable pain to the tail-bitten pig Infections can get into the central vertebrae causing serious health problems and carcass damage It is a sign of poor environments and/or management It is one of the greatest economic losses to pig production

113. On this farm, this was the only case of tail-biting observed in over 100 pigs. Why wasn’t it more common? The farm manager attributed a low level of tail-biting to an enriched high-welfare environment with straw. TAIL-BITING the problems it causes

114. TAIL-BITING the industry’s solution to the problem Shortly after birth, each piglet’s tail is docked with a blade or a hot wire What is the industry’s solution to the problem?

117. TAIL-BITING how it can be reduced or prevented Some farms provide chains and toys to try and reduce problems with tail-biting Which of these two methods of enrichment are likely to be most effective in reducing tail-biting? Wood shavings, see next slide

118. TAIL-BITING methods of enrichment that work best Zonderland et al investigated the effects of different kinds of enrichment on the number of mild and serious injuries caused by tail-biting. What do the results show?

120. “ Neither tail docking nor reduction of corner teeth must be carried out routinely but only where there is evidence that injuries to sows' teats or to other pigs' ears or tails have occurred. Before carrying out these procedures, other measures shall be taken to prevent tail biting and other vices taking into account environment and stocking densities (our emphasis). For this reason inadequate environmental conditions or management systems must be changed. “ Pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities, such as straw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroom compost, peat or a mixture of such …” Annex to Council Directive 91/630/EEC EU REGULATIONS REQUIRE:

125. CHAPTER 9 good stockmanship

128. STOCKMANSHIP empathy Empathy is all about how you would feel if in the pigs situation This stockperson is aware that this sow is stressed because she is about to give birth in a farrowing crate. She therefore tries to soothe the sow and cool her down. Do some people naturally make more empathetic stockpersons? This farm deliberately chooses female staff for supervising farrowing sows Film of cooling farrowing sow follows 

129. STOCKMANSHIP knowledge and experience These pig producers attend regular meetings where they share the latest scientific information

130. STOCKMANSHIP good observation skills Recognising signs that pigs are thriving and content or not These stockpersons know that ‘bedding down’ is a good time to observe the sows for any sign of illness or poor welfare Film of bedding down of sows follows 

131. STOCKMANSHIP good observation skills Any sick or injured pigs should be moved immediately to a sick pen Sick pen deep bedded with straw Health problems should be monitored and vets should be consulted regularly

132. STOCKMANSHIP conscientiousness Paying careful attention to the pigs and the equipment they rely on These farmers check whether there is sufficient bedding in the arcs

133. STOCKMANSHIP welfare codes The “5 freedoms” form the basis of welfare codes that are recommended for pigs Many different countries produce welfare codes that provide a useful reference for stockpersons Although they are not always legally binding, they can be cited in prosecutions In the UK, the law states that every person caring for animals must have instruction in the codes English Welfare codes  Defra

135. STOCKMANSHIP freedom to perform natural behaviour Stockpersons need to be aware of the natural behaviour and ethology of the pig It is common for stockpersons to see bar biting as normal behaviour having never seen pigs in a more natural environment

136. STOCKMANSHIP freedom to perform natural behaviour Pigs are naturally clean animals and will select a particular part of the pen away from the main lying area for dunging If pigs are overcrowded and become too hot, they will start to use the dunging area as a wallow to try to cool down

137. STOCKMANSHIP freedom to perform natural behaviour For outdoor sows it is even more important to have the correct provisions so that they can regulate body temperature through their own natural behaviour Wallows Well bedded shelters

138. STOCKMANSHIP freedom from fear and distress Pigs are naturally fearful of humans The attitude and behaviour of the stockperson is important for reducing this fear Reducing fear not only improves welfare it also improves performance Film of fearfulness in early-weaned piglets follows 

139. STOCKMANSHIP freedom from fear and distress Several studies have compared the effects of stockperson interaction on performance in pigs (Gonyou et al. , 1986; Hemsworth et al. , 1986; 1987) What do these results suggest? Type of interaction Good None Poor Time to react with person (s) 10 92 160 Corticosteroid (ng/ml) 1.6 1.7 2.5 Pregnancy rate of gilts (%) 88 57 33 Growth rate 8-18 weeks (g/d) 897 881 837

141. STOCKMANSHIP effects of training on both welfare and production A four year study looking at 40 farms showed that the training of stockpeople can have a beneficial effect on both welfare and production The training developed an understanding of the behaviour of pigs and a knowledge of how they should be handled correctly. The training encouraged the stockpeople to develop more empathetic attitudes to pigs (Hemsworth et al., 1987) Effect of training Abnormal behaviours -36% Fear of humans -29% No. of piglets weaned +4.8% Pigs/sow/year +6%

142. STOCKMANSHIP handling pigs The most common interaction between stockpersons and pigs occurs when they are being moved Good handling can have a beneficial effect on meat quality How? Because stress before slaughter increases the risk of PSE (Pale Soft Exudative) meat, reducing meat quality Film of pig-handling follows 

144. STOCKMANSHIP welfare potential Pigs can suffer in any system if stockmanship is poor However, systems vary in their potential to provide good welfare In most intensive systems, the stockperson is limited to ensuring that the pigs do not face any additional stressors Most extensive systems have a higher welfare potential but this can be highly dependent on good stockmanship Which of these systems has the higher potential for good welfare?

146. STOCKMANSHIP “ In many situations, the importance of the stockperson as a ‘welfare worker’ is undervalued “

147. CHAPTER 10 summary

153. ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP) pig production This presentation has been adapted for use on shareview Full version available free from ciwf.org/gap on DVD-ROM Full version includes embedded video clips and interactive animation DVD-ROM also includes film, book and lecturers’ notes GAP Pigs DVD-ROM

154. PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARY Animal Welfare Aspects of Good Agricultural Practice THE END