introduction of nano fluids

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INTRODUCTION:-
Heat transfer is one of the most important industrial processes. In any industrial facilities heat
must be efficiently managed by adding, removing or moving in the relevant sectors.
Conventional heat transfer fluids such as water, ethylene glycol (EG), pumping oil, etc, have not
shown sufficient capability for cooling applications due to their poor thermal performance.
Therefore, development of highly efficient heat transfer fluids for solving the drawback of
conventional fluids has become one of the most important priorities in the cooling industries. In
last decade, nanoscience and nanotechnology (NFs) has offered new solution by introducing
nanofluids (NFs) which may assist to enhance heat transfer fluids’ performance especially in the
high-tech applications.
Thermal properties of liquids play a decisive role in heating as well as cooling applications in
industrial processes. Thermal conductivity of a liquid is an important physical property that
decides its heat transfer performance. Nanofluids are stable colloidal suspensions of nano
materials (nanoparticles, nanorods, nanotubes, nanowires, nanofibers, nanosheets, other
nanocomposites, or even nano-droplets and nano-bubbles) in common, base fluids, such as
water, oil, ethylene-glycol mixtures (antifreeze), refrigerants, heat transfer fluids, polymer
solutions, bio-fluids, and others. Nanoparticles are very small, nanometer-sized particles with
their smallest dimension usually less than 100 nm (nanometers). The smallest nanoparticles, only
a few nanometers in diameter, may contain a few thousand atoms. These nanoparticles can
possess properties that are substantially different from their parent materials, and they may
interact quite differently within their dynamic molecular structure with the base fluids, than the
corresponding microparticles, and respond differently within different force-flux processes
accompanied with mass energy transfers. Similarly, nanofluids may have properties that are
substantially different from their base fluids, like much higher thermal conductivity, and other
flow and heat transfer characteristics. These advanced fluids have displayed potential to enhance
the performance of conventional heat transfer fluids. Nanofluids consist of a base fluid enriched
with nano size particles (less that 100 nm).

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Nanofluids are characterized by an enrichment of a base fluid like Water, Ethylene glycol or oil
with nanoparticles in variety of types like Metals, Oxides, Carbides, Carbon. Mostly commonly
recalled Nanofluids could be typified as TiO2 in water, CuO in water, Al2O3 in water, ZnO in
Ethylene glycol. Today Nanofluids have got wide range of applications in transportation, power
generation, nuclear, space, microelectronics, biomedical and many areas where heat removal is
involved.
By suspending nanophase particles in heating or cooling fluids, the heat transfer performance of
the fluid can be significantly improved. The main reasons may be listed as follows:
 The suspended nanoparticles increase the surface area and the heat capacity of the fluid.
 The suspended nanoparticles increase the effective (or apparent) thermal conductivity of
the fluid.
 The interaction and collision among particles, fluid and the flow passage surface are
intensified.
 The mixing fluctuation and turbulence of the fluid are intensified.
 The dispersion of nanoparticles flattens the transverse temperature gradient of the fluid.
Nanofluid is a new kind of heat transfer medium, containing nanoparticles (1–100 nm) which are
uniformly and stably distributed in a base fluid. These distributed nanoparticles, generally a
metal or metal oxide greatly enhance the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, increases
conduction and convection coefficients, allowing for more heat transfer. Nanofluids possess
the following advantages as compared to conventional fluids which makes them suitable
for various applications involving heat exchange.
 Absorption of solar energy will be maximized with change of the size, shape, material,
and volume fraction of the nanoparticles.
 The suspended nanoparticles increase the surface area and the heat capacity of the fluid
due to the very small particle size.
 The suspended Nanoparticles enhance the thermal conductivity which results
improvement in efficiency of heat transfer systems.
 Heating within the fluid volume, transfers heat to a small area of fluid and
allowing the peak temperature to be located away from surfaces losing heat to the
environment.
 The mixing fluctuation and turbulence of the fluid are intensified.
 The dispersion of nanoparticles flattens the transverse temperature gradient of the
fluid.
 To make suitable for different applications, properties of fluid can be changed by
varying concentration of nanoparticles.

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PREPARATION OF NANOFLUIDS:-
A nanofluid is prepared by dispersing particles of metal or metal oxide with sizes of 100 nm or
less, in a base liquid such as water. The purpose of using nanofluids is to achieve higher values
of heat transfer coefficient compared with that of the base liquid. This is achieved by the
dispersion of solid particles, which have higher thermal conductivity than the base liquid. There
are many engineering applications that can benefit from the use of nanofluids, for example
absorption refrigeration, micro electromechanical systems, lubrication of automotive systems,
the manufacture of advanced miniature camera lenses, coolant in machining, automobile radiator
cooling, personal computers, solar water heating, heat exchangers, several medical applications,
nuclear reactors, and in several aerospace applications. Recent advances in material technology
have made it possible to produce innovative heat transfer fluids by suspending nanometer-sized
particles in base fluids, which could change the transport and thermal properties of the liquids.
Nanofluids represent solid-liquid composite materials consisting of solid nanoparticles with sizes
no larger than 100 nm suspended in liquid.
There are several methods to improve the heat transfer efficiency. Some methods are utilization
of extended surfaces, application of vibration to the heat transfer surfaces, and usage of micro
channels. Heat transfer efficiency can also be improved by increasing the thermal conductivity of
the working fluid. Commonly used heat transfer fluids such as water, ethylene glycol, and engine
oil have relatively low thermal conductivities, when compared to the thermal conductivity of
solids. High thermal conductivity of solids can be used to increase the thermal conductivity of a
fluid by adding small solid particles to that fluid.
It must be mentioned that, preparation of NFs is not only simple mixing and dispersing solid
particles in a base liquid. It is the most significant stage in the use of NPs or any nanostructured
materials to enhance the thermal characteristics of conventional heat transfer fluids. The reason
is that agglomeration of solid particles could happen in base liquid media if the NFs are not
prepared properly which may in turn result in poor thermo-physical property of NFs. There are
two major techniques, which are typically used for NFs preparation: two-step method and one-
step (single step) method-
1. Preparation of NFs via a two-step method:-
In the two-step method, which is the most commonly used technique, NPs, nanotubes, nanofibers
or any nanostructured materials are initially synthesized as dry powders via physical or chemical
methods. After that the synthesized dry powders are dispersed in base liquids. As solid
NPs/nanostructures have already been produced in industrial scale, this method is the best choice
to large scale production of NFs. However, because of high surface activity of particles,
agglomeration/aggregation of NPs is unavoidable. Hence, sedimentation of NPs can take place in
this method, which affects the NF’s properties negatively. This drawback (higher sedimentation
rate of NPs in the base liquid) in the two-step method has motivated the researchers to replace
this method with other technique to prepare NFs with minimum NPs agglomeration. For this
reason, preparation of NFs using one-step method has recently received notable attention.

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2. Preparation of NFs via a one-step method:-
In the one-step preparation method, both NP preparation and fabrication of NF are carried out
simultaneously in a combined process. Preparation of NF via a one-step method provides some
advantages such as minimizing the agglomeration of NPs because in this method the steps of
NPs drying, storage, transportation and dispersion of particles in the base liquid media are
combined which leads to minimum agglomeration/aggregation/sedimentation of NPs.
Nevertheless, scalability of some fabrication methods could be costly and troublesome
Stability of NFs:-
Stability is one of the key features for any NF system in each application, especially heat transfer
application. Although a lot of studies have been done about the stability of dispersion containing
solid particles, fabrication of homogeneous NFs with high stability is still a technical challenge.
There is a strong tendency of NPs to form aggregates/agglomeration in the liquid media resulting
in not only the clogging of microchannels but also degradation of NF’s thermal properties.
Therefore, the study of stability of NFs including the key factors which influence the stability as
well as the techniques which can be used for the evaluation of the stability of NFs are necessary.
The factors affecting stability of NFs-
 Preparation method
 Concentration of Nanoparticles
 Mixing methods
 Surface charge
FIG. 1. Preparation flow chart of nanofluids using different dispersing methods.

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MECHANISM OF ENHANCED HEAT CONDUCTION IN NANO
FLUIDS
In nano fluids heat is carried by phonons, i.e., by propagating lattice vibrations. Based on the
experimental results, we conclude that the macroscopic theory of heat transport in composite
materials fails for the case of nanofluids.
1. Brownian motion:-
Brownian motion, by which particle move through liquid and possibly collide, therby enabling
direct solid-solid transport of heat from one to another, can be expected to increase thermal
conductivity. This motion is characterized by the particle diffusion constant D, is given by the
Stokes-Einstien formula:
Where,
KB =Boltzmann constant,
d= paticle diameter
η = fluid viscosity
By the above equation we compare the thermal conductivity by comparing the time scale of
particle motion with that of heat diffusion in the liquid.
2.Effect of nanoparticle clustering
3.liquid layering at liquid/particle interface:-

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Fig-2 - Graph between thermal conductivity and diameter of particle size
THERMO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NANO FLUIDS
Thermo physical properties of the nanofluids are quite essential to predict their heat transfer
behavior. It is extremely important in the control for the industrial and energy saving
perspectives. There is great industrial interest in nanofluids. Nanoparticles have great potential to
improve the thermal transport properties compared to conventional particles fluids suspension,
millimetre and micrometer sized particles. In the last decade, nanofluids have gained significant
attention due to its enhanced thermal properties. Experimental studies show that thermal
conductivity of nanofluids depends on many factors such as particle volume fraction, particle
material, particle size, particle shape, base fluid material, and temperature. Amount and types of
additives and the acidity of the nanofluid were also shown to be effective in the thermal
conductivity enhancement.
The transport properties of nanofluid: dynamic thermal conductivity and viscosity are not only
dependent on volume fraction of nanoparticle, also highly dependent on other parameters such as
particle shape, size, mixture combinations and slip mechanisms, surfactant, etc. Studies showed
that the thermal conductivity as well as viscosity both increases by use of nanofluid compared to
base fluid. So far, various theoretical and experimental studies have been conducted and various
correlations have been proposed for thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of nanofluids.
However, no general correlations have been established due to lack of common understanding on

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mechanism of nanofluid. The thermal properties of nanofluids have received significant
attention. Nanofluids are considered to offer important advantages over conventional heat
transfer fluids.
1.Thermal conductivity:-
A wide range of experimental and theoretical studies were conducted in the literature to model
thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The existing results were generally based on the definition of
the effective thermal conductivity of a two-component mixture. The Maxwell (1881) model was
one the first models proposed for solid–liquid mixture with relatively large particles. It was
based on the solution of heat conduction equation through a stationary random suspension of
spheres. The effective thermal conductivity (Eq.1) is given by
………..(1)
Where kp -thermal conductivity of the particles,
keff -effective thermal conductivity of nanofluid,
kbf -base fluid thermal conductivity, and
ϕ(α) -volume fraction of the suspended particles.
Where,
m- number of the particles per unit volume and
dp- average diameter of the particles.
The general trend in the experimental data is that the thermal conductivity of nanofluids
increases with decreasing particle size. This trend is theoretically supported by two mechanisms
of thermal conductivity enhancement; Brownian motion of nanoparticles and liquid layering
around nanoparticles. However, there is also a significant amount of contradictory data in the
literature that indicate decreasing thermal conductivity with decreasing particle size. The thermal
conductivity of nanofluids was found to increase with concentration.
2. Viscosity:-
Compared with the experimental studies on thermal conductivity of nanofluids, there are limited
rheological studies reported in the literature for viscosity. Different models of viscosity have
been used by researchers to model the effective viscosity of nanofluid as a function of volume
fraction. Einstein (1956) determined the effective viscosity of a suspension of spherical solids as

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a function of volume fraction (volume concentration lower than 5%) using the phenomenological
hydrodynamic equations (Eq.2). This equation was expressed by-
………………………(2)
Where , µeff-effective viscosity of nanofluid,
µbf - base fluid viscosity, and
ϕ - volume fraction of the suspended particles.
Later, Brinkman (1952) presented a viscosity correlation (Eq.3) that extended Einstein’s
equation to suspensions with moderate particle volume fraction, typically less than 4%.
……………..(3)
The effect of Brownian motion on the effective viscosity in a suspension of rigid spherical
particles was studied by Batchelor (1977). For isotropic structure of suspension, the effective
viscosity was given by(Eq.4):
…………………….(4)
3. Specific heat and density:-
Using classical formulas derived for a two-phase mixture, the specific heat capacity and density
of the nanofluid as a function of the particle volume concentration and individual properties can
be computed using following equations(Eqs 5,and 6) respectively:
……………………..(5)
…………………………..(6)
4. Friction Factor :-
Turbulent friction factors have been evaluated for the flow of nanofluids in a tube, Some of the
studies are in agreement with values estimated by using the Blasius equation:
A number of studies concluded that heat transfer enhancement depends on the Dittus-Boelter
equation-

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where n is 0.4 at heating and 0.3 at cooling.
5.Temperature:-
The temperature of a two component mixture, such as a nanofluid, depends on the temperature of
the solid component as well as that of the host media. In a nanofluid the increase in temperature
enhances the collision between the nano particles (Brownian motion) and the formation of
nanoparticle aggregates (Li et al., 2008a), which result in a drastic change in the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids. It was found that thermal conductivity ratio decreased with
increasing temperature.

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APPLICATIONS OF NANOFLUIDS
1. Applications in automotive :-
 An ethylene glycol and water mixture, the nearly universally used automotive coolant, is
a relatively poor heat transfer fluid compared to water alone.
 In automobile arena, nanofluids have potential application as engine coolant,
automatic transmission fluid, brake fluid, gear lubrication, transmission fluid,
engine oil and greases.
 The use of nanofluids as coolants would allow for smaller size and better positioning of
the radiators. There would be less fluid due to the higher efficiency, coolant pump
could be shrunk and truck engines could be operated at higher temperatures
allowing for more horsepower.
 It was shown that the combustion of diesel fuel mixed with aqueous aluminum
nanofluid increased the total combustion heat while decreasing the concentration of
smoke and nitrous oxide in the exhaust emission from the diesel engine.
 During the process of braking, the produced heat causes the brake fluid to reach its
boiling point, a vapour lock is created that retards the hydraulic system from
dispersing the heat caused from braking. Nanofluids with enhanced characteristics
maximize performance in heat transfer as well as remove any safety concerns.
2. Applications of nanofluid in domestic:-
 Now a days, in refrigeration equipment HFC134a is used as a refrigerant. So
nanoparticles can be used to enhance the working fluid properties and energy efficiency
of the refrigerating system associated with reduction in CO2 emission.
 Nanofluids can be applied in the building heating systems.
3. Industrial cooling applications:-
 The application of nanofluids in industrial cooling will result in great energy savings and
emissions reductions. It was observed that the specific heat of nanofluids was found to be
50% higher for nanofluids compared with polyalphaolefin and it increased with
temperature. The thermal diffusivity was found to be 4 times higher for nanofluids. The
convective heat transfer was enhanced by ~10% using nanofluids compared with using
polyalphaolefin. The thermal conductivity of the liquid-metal fluid can be enhanced
through the addition of more conductive nanoparticles.
 Due to higher density of chips, design of electronic components with more compact
makes heat dissipation more difficult. Advanced electronic devices face thermal
management challenges from the high level of heat generation and the reduction of
available surface area for heat removal. So, the reliable thermal management system is
vital for the smooth operation of the advanced electronic devices. Nanofluids with higher
thermal conductivities are predicated convective heat transfer coefficients compared to
those of base fluids.

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 Due to the restriction of space, energy and weight in space station and aircraft, there is a
strong demand for high efficient cooling system with smaller size. Nanofluids with high
critical heat fluxes have the potential to provide the required cooling in such applications
as well as in other military systems, including military vehicles, submarines, and high-
power laser diodes. Therefore, nanofluids have wide application in space and defense
fields where power density is very high and the components should be smaller and weight
less.
4. Energy applications:-
For energy applications of nanofluids, two remarkable properties of nanofluids are utilized, one
is the higher thermal conductivities of nanofluids, enhancing the heat transfer, and another is the
absorption properties of nanofluids.
1.Energy storage:- The temporal difference of energy source and energy needs made necessary
the development of storage system. The storage of thermal energy in the form of sensible and
latent heat has become an important aspect of energy management with the emphasis on efficient
use and conservation of the waste heat and solar energy in industry and buildings. Latent heat
storage is one of the most efficient ways of storing thermal energy.
2. Solar absorption:- Solar energy is one of the best sources of renewable energy with minimal
environmental impact. The conventional direct absorption solar collector is a well established
technology, and it has been proposed for a variety of applications such as water heating; however
the efficiency of these collectors is limited by the absorption properties of the working fluid,
which is very poor for typical fluids used in solar collectors.
5. Mechanical applications:
Nanoparticles in nanofluids form a protective film with low hardness and elastic modulus on the
worn surface can be considered as the main reason that some nanofluids exhibit excellent
lubricating properties. Magnetic fluids are kinds of special nanofluids. Magnetic liquid rotary
seals operate with no maintenance and extremely low leakage in a very wide range of
applications, and it utilizing the property magnetic properties of the magnetic nanoparticles in
liquid.
1. Friction reduction:- Advanced lubricants can improve productivity through energy saving and
reliability of engineered systems. Tribological research heavily emphasizes reducing friction and
wear. Nanoparticles have attracted much interest in recent years due to their excellent load-
carrying capacity, good extreme pressure and friction reducing properties.
2. Magnetic sealing:- Magnetic fluids (Ferromagnetic fluid) are kinds of special nanofluids. They
are stable colloidal suspensions of small magnetic particles such as magnetite (Fe3O4). The
properties of the magnetic nanoparticles, the magnetic component of magnetic nanofluids, may

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be tailored by varying their size and adapting their surface coating in order to meet the
requirements of colloidal stability of magnetic nanofluids with non-polar and polar carrier
liquids. Ferro-cobalt magnetic fluid was used for oil sealing, and the holding pressure is 25 times
as high as that of a conventional magnetite sealing.
6. Biomedical application:
For some special kinds of nanoparticles, they have antibacterial activities or drug delivery
properties, so the nanofluids containing these nanoparticles will exhibit some relevant properties.
1.Antibacterial activity:- Organic antibacterial materials are often less stable particularly at high
temperatures or pressures. The antibacterial behaviour of ZnO nanofluids shows that the ZnO
nanofluids have bacteriostatic activity against, Further investigations have clearly demonstrated
that ZnO nanoparticles have a wide range of antibacterial effects on a number of other
microorganisms.
2. Nano drug delivery:- Over the last few decades, colloidal drug delivery systems have been
developed in order to improve the efficiency and the specificity of drug action [29]. The small
size, customized surface, improved solubility, and multi-functionality of nanoparticles open
many doors and create new biomedical applications. The novel properties of nanoparticles offer
the ability to interact with complex cellular functions in new ways .Gold nanoparticles provide
non-toxic carriers for drug and gene delivery applications.
7. Other applications:
 Cancer Theraupetics.
 Nanocryosurgery.
 Sensing and Imaging
 Cryopreservation Nanofluid Detergent.
 Intensify micro reactors,
 Nanofluids as vehicular brake fluids,
 Nanofluids based microbial fuel cell,
 Nanofluids as optical filters.

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LIMATATION OF USING NANOFLUIDS:-
The use of nanofluids seems attractive in a broad range of applications as reported in the
previous section. But the development in the area of nanofluid application is hindered by
many factors in which long term stability of nanofluid in suspension is major reason. So, this
paper focuses many important challenges that should be solved in the near future. The
following are the most pressing issues:
 Poor long term stability of suspension
 Increased pressure drop and pumping power
 Lower specific heat
 High cost of nanofluids
 Toxicity and disposal problems
LITERATURE REVIEW
Suspension of nanoparticles like Al, Zn, Si etc. in base fluids are called nanofluids. Nanofluid is
the new challenge for thermal science provided by nanotechnology. These nanofluids have
unique features different from conventional solid liquid mixtures. They contain mm or
micrometer sized particles of metals and non-metals. Due to their excellent physical and
chemical characteristics they find wide applications in enhancing heat transfer.
1) Sarit Kumar Das, Stephen U.S. Choi & Hrishikesh E. Patel [1]presented a paper on
“Heat Transfer in Nanofluids-A Review”. In this paper they presented an exhaustive
review of nanotechnology study and suggest a direction for future developments in
nanotechnology. The conclusion drawn in this paper is that nanofluids show great promise
for use in cooling and related technologies. They observed maximum enhancement
(∼160%) with 1% volume fraction with multi-walled carbon nanotubes dispersed in
engine oil.
2) Elena V. Timofeeva, Wenhua Yu et. al. [2]presented a paper on “ Nanofluids for Heat
Transfer: An Engineering Approach”. In this paper the factors contributing to the fluid
cooling efficiency were discussed first, followed by a review of nanofluid engineering
parameters and a brief analysis of their contributions to basic thermo-physical properties.
3) P. Keblinski, S.R. Phillpot, S.U.S. Choi & J.A.Eastman [3]presented a paper on
“Mechanism of Heat Flow in Suspensions of Nano-sized Particles (nanofluids)”. In this
paper they explained different mechanisms of heat flow in nanofluids.They explained
Brownian motion of the particles, molecular level layering of the liquid at the
liquid/particle interface, the nature of heat transport in the nanoparticles, and the effects of
nanoparticle clustering.
4) S.U.S.Choi and J.A.Eastman[4] presented a paper on “Enhancing Thermal Conductivity
of Fluids with Nanoparticles”. They provided information related to technology for
production of nanoparticles and suspensions and theoretical study of thermal conductivity

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of nanofluids.They estimated potential benefits of nanofluids with copper nanophase
materials.
5) L.Xue, P. Keblinski, S.R.Phillot et. al.[5] presented a paper on “ Effect of liquid layering
at the liquid-solid interface on thermal transport”. In this paper they showed how the
ordering of the liquid at the liquid-solid interface affects the interfacial resistance. Their
simulation of a simple monoatomic liquid shwed no effect on the thermal transport either
normal to the surface or parralel to the surface. Also their findings suggest that the
experimentally observed large enhancement of thermal conductivity in suspension of solid
nanosized particles can not be explained by altered thermal transport proprties of the
liquid layer.
CONCLUSION
Nanofluid cooling has variety of application in power generation, industrial, information
technology, and business sections. Promising advantages of Nanofluids through enhancement of
heat transfer have been summarized as efficiency and safety boos in power generation, product
size, cost and waste reduction, product quality and aesthetic improvement, energy consumption
and emission reduction, faster communication and computation and ultimately in one word
prosperity of the society.
Finally dangerous and many unknown sides of the Nanofluids utilization must be addressed to
ensure about impressive role of this advanced technology in driving the life on planet earth
towards more prosperity. This end will be met thorough years of extensive research and
development of models, experiments and patents.
The review of these studies shows that nanofluids are very important for many applications.
Many studies showed good agreement between experimental and numerical studies. Some
general conclusions are:
 An increase in thermal conductivity occurred by adding nanoparticles to liquids.
 Viscosity increased as the concentration of particles increased.
 Friction factor increased with Reynolds number from experimental results and from the
Blasius equation.
 The convection heat transfer coefficient was shown to increase with Reynolds number
and volume concentration by experimental results and the Dittus-Boelter equation.

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REFERENCES
[1] Sarit Kumar Das, Stephen U.S. Choi & Hrishikesh E. Patel “Heat Transfer in Nanofluids-A
Review” Heat Transfer Engineering, Taylor & Fracis, 27(10):3-19, 2006.
[2] Elena V. Timofeeva, Wenhua Yu et. al. “Nanofluids for Heat Transfer: An Engineering
Approach”, Nanoscale Research Letters,pp.1-18,2003
[3] P. Keblinski, S.R. Phillpot, S.U.S. Choi & J.A.Eastman “Mechanism of Heat Flow in
Suspensions of Nano-sized Particles (nanofluids)”, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 45 (2002) pp.855-863.
[4] S.U.S.Choi and J.A.Eastman “Enhancing Thermal Conductivity of Fluids with
Nanoparticles”, ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition, Nov. 12-
17,2005.
[5] L.Xue, P. Keblinski, S.R.Phillot et. al. “Effect of liquid layering at the liquid-solid interface
on thermal transport”, International Journal of Heat & Mass Transfer, 47 9,2004) 4277-4284.
[6] E Natarajan & R Sathish.,(2009), Role of nanofluids in solar water heater,
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
[7] M.T. Naik and L. Syam Sundar[11] published a paper “Investigation into Thermophysical
Properties of Glycol based CuO Nanofluids for Heat Transfer Applications” World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology 59,2011
[8] A.K.Singh, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune “Thermal Conductivity of
Nanofluids”, Defence Science Journal, Vol.58, No.5 Sep.2008,pp. 600-607.