3. Neuroblastoma
This is a neoplasm of neural crest origin,
arising in the adrenal medulla and along
the sympathetic ganglion chain from the
neck to the pelvis
Arise during fetal or early postnatal
life
Is the most common extra cranial
solid tumors in children
10% of all childhood cancer and 15%
of all cancer deaths
Incidence 1 in 7500 – 10,000 children
40% in children younger than 1yr, 75% at age
7 and 98% at age 10
More than 50% occur in children under 2yrs of
age
Boys : Girls = 1.2:1
Majority occur sporadically but familial NB
occur in 2% of cases
Primary Sites of tumor:
Abdominal cavity 75%
Adrenal medulla 50%
Para spinal ganglia 25%
Posterior mediastinal 20%
Pelvic 4%
Cervical 1%
3
4. Gross Appearance
NB : Grossly, neuroblastoma usually appears as a highly vascular
purple-gray mass that is often solid, with friable pseudocapsule.
Wilm’s Tumor - cut section - soft, homogeneous, tan to gray,
with occasional foci of hemorrhage, cyst & necrosis
4
5. Clinical Presentation
Related to the
site of the primary tumor,
presence of metastases,
production of certain metabolic tumor byproducts
In 50% to 75% present with an abdominal mass
Generalized symptoms
Horner syndrome (Ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, anhidrosis)
associated with a paraneoplastic syndrome of
autoimmune origin, termed opsoclonus-myoclonus–ataxia
syndrome(OMS), in which patients experience rapid,
uncontrollable jerking eye and body movements,poor
coordination, and cognitive dysfunction.
5
6. Clinical Presentation
Symptoms due to metastatic
diseases
70% of patients have metastatic disease
at diagnosis mainly to bone marrow,
lymph nodes, liver and bone
Bone pain and limping
Anemia/pancytopenia weakness,
infection, and abnormal bleeding or
bruising
○ “Blueberry muffin” nodules
Symptoms related to excessive
catecholamine or VIP secretion
flushing, diarrhea, weight loss,
hypertension(25%), headache
Dumb-bell(Hour-glass) Tumor
6
7. Diagnostic Imaging
Radiographs
Fine calcification and as
mediastinal and mediastinal
mass
CT scan
Calcification in ~ 85% of tumors,
and intraspinal extension of the
tumor on contrast-enhanced CT
Overall, contrast-enhanced CT
has 82% accuracy in defining
neuroblastoma extent, with the
accuracy increasing to nearly
97% when performed with a
bone scan
7
►Imaging findings
Stippled calcification or
LN with calcification
Displace the kidney
inferiorly
Crossing the midline
Encasing/displace vessels
Paravertebral mass—
spinal extension
8. Diagnostic Imaging
MRI
More accurate than CT for detection
of stage 4 disease
○ The sensitivity of MRI is 83%(CT-
43%) and the specificity of MRI is
97%(CT-88%)
○ Metastases to the bone and bone
marrow and intraspinal tumor
extension are better detected by
MRI
MIBG bone scintigraphy
82% sensitivity and 91% specificity
for detection of metastases to the
bone and bone marrow
Required imaging studies
○ CT and/or MRI to address IDRFs is
mandatory for imaging the primary
tumor and metastatic sites
○ MIBG scintigraphy is mandatory
to define metastatic disease.
8
9. BM EXAM:
Bilateral bone marrow biopsy is a
routine method for detecting bone
marrow involvement
At least two aspirates and two
biopsies from bilateral sites
Tissue biopsy— requires 1cm³ of
tissue
Including immunohistochemistry and
genetic analysis whenever possible
LAB IX
LDH >1500 IU/L
Ferritin >150 ng/ml
Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE >100
ng/mL)
Catecholamine Metabolites VMA &
HVA
Elevated in 90–95 % of
neuroblastomas
DIAGNOSIS OF NB
The minimum international
diagnostic criteria of
neuroblastoma –Needs one of
the following:
1. A tissue biopsy with
histologic confirmation or
2. The presence of
unequivocal tumor cells
within a bone marrow
biopsy/aspirate and
increased levels of
urinary/serum
catecholamine metabolites
9
10. Staging And Risk
Classification of
Neuroblastoma
Shimada histopathologic system: classifies
tumors into favorable or unfavorable categories
based on Stromal pattern, Age, degree of
neuroblastic Differentiation, Mitosis karyorrhexis
index (MKI relating to fragmentation of the
nucleus), and Nodularity (mnemonic: SADMaN).
Favorable Shimada: young age, low MKI, mature
neuroblast differentiation, rich stroma with non-
nodular pattern.
10
11. ►The International Neuroblastoma Staging System (INSS)
is a surgicopathologic staging system that depends on:
The completeness of resection of the primary tumor
Highly subjective
Assessment of ipsilateral and contralateral lymph
nodes, and
The relation of the primary tumor to the midline
4S Disease<12 months
Staging And Risk
Classification…
INSS Stage Description
1 Localized tumor, grossly resected, no lymph node involvement
2A
Unilateral tumor, incomplete gross excision, negative lymph
nodes
2B Unilateral tumor with positive ipsilateral lymph nodes
3
Tumor infiltrating across midline or unilateral tumor with
contralateral lymph nodes or midline tumor with bilateral
lymph nodes
4 Distant metastatic disease
4S
Localized primary tumor as defined by stage 1 or 2 in patient
under 12 months with dissemination limited to the liver, skin,
and/or bone marrow (<10% involvement)
11
12. Management
Treatment is determined by risk stratification into low, intermediate, and high
risk.
Factors incorporated into the most recent COG risk grouping include: Stage,
Age, N-myc, DNA ploidy, and Shimada histology (mnemonic “SANDS,”)
Low-Risk Disease
surgical resection alone
Infants with stage 4S disease who are not experiencing substantial symptoms may
undergo an initial biopsy and observation only
Intermediate-Risk Disease
Chemotherapy + surgical resection
Radiation therapy (if does not respond to initial chemotherapy)
Biopsy+ Chemotherapy,then Delayed surgery
High-Risk Disease
intensive induction chemotherapy
myeloablative consolidation therapy with BMT &13-cis-retinoic acid
radiation therapy is administered to the region of the primary tumor site, including involved
adjacent LNDs
delayed surgical resection
12
13. Surgical Principles In
Neuroblastoma
Approach depends on
Exact tumor location of the tumor
Tumor size
The extent of vascular encasement
13
►Operative principles
1. Approach the operation as a vascular-
type operation
Identification and skeletonization of the
major vessels
Dissecting in a subadventitial plane
2. The tumor should be removed
piecemeal
3. Dissection starts distal to the lower edge
of the tumor, along the common or
external iliac artery, and proceeds
proximally
14. Operative Complication
Bleeding
80% of patients will that
requires transfusion
Injury to a major
vascular structure—
10%
Injury to other viscera
(stomach, bowel, liver,
spleen, or kidney)—5%
Necessitates removal of
the injured organ—
most commonly –the
kidney
Wound complications ,
bowel obstruction1–
5%
Others
Hypertension, chyle leak,
pleural effusion, infection
and sepsis, diarrhea .
Depending on site:
Horner syndrome,
paralysis, foot drop,
nephrectomy
14
15. WILMS’ TUMOR
It is the second most common malignant abdominal tumor in
childhood after neuroblastoma
6-7% of all pediatric malignancies and by far the most
common of Renal tumors (91%)
The mean age at diagnosis is 36 months, with most children
presenting between the ages of 12 and 48 months.
Tumors tend to occur about 6 months later in girls than in
boys.
WT is rare at greater than 10 years and at less than 6
months of age.
>80% of cases are diagnosed before 5 years of age
Tumors can be unilateral or bilateral
Bilateral Wilms’ tumors (BWT) occur in 4% - 13% of patients
15
18. Clinical Presentation
Typical pt – Healthy preschool child
- with Asymptomatic abdominal mass
Most children present with only an abdominal mass - 90%
Abdominal pain (30-40%)
Hematuria (18%)
fever (10%)
Hypertension (25%)- Renin
Extension into the renal vein(10%),
IVC(4-8%) & Atrium(1-2%)
varicocele
hepatomegaly, ascites
18
19. Diagnostic imaging
objective – to establish
1. Size & extent of abdominal mass
2. organ of origin
3. presence of functioning contralateral kidney
4. bilateral disease
5. patency of IVC & renal vein
6. distant metastasis
Abdominal Ultrasound
Site & origion of the mass
Vascular extension
Ureteral extension
R/O – hydronephrosis & multicystic kidney
19
20. Contrast enhanced CT
Confirm renal origin
Further evaluate nature & extent
Detect small tumors or NRs in the
opposite kidney
MRI – not superior to CT
CXR – pulmonary metastasis
CYSTOSCOPY – hematuria (ureteral
extension)
IVP – distortion of collecting system
20
21. Laboratory tests
• CBC - Anemia
RFT & Urine analysis
○ Creatinine – reduction in GFR prior to surgery
○ Protienurea & hematuria
LFT – liver metastasis
Coagulation studies
○ Acquired Von Willebrand’s disease in WT – 10%
○ Prolonged PT, aPTT
○ Should be determined prior to surgery
21
22. Staging
Stage I – limited to kidney
- completely resectable
- intact capsule
- no rupture before & after
removal
- no residual tumor beyond
resection margin
Stage II – extends beyond kidney
- completely excised
- regional extension beyond
capsule
- BV may be infiltrated
- local spillage confined to
ipsilateral flank
- no residual tu beyond margins of
resection
Stage III – non hematogenous tu
within the abdomen
- regional LN metastasis
- diffuse peritoneal implants
- gross or microscopic tumor
post Op
- incomplete resection
Stage IV – hematogenous metastasis
( lung , liver , bone , brain etc.)
- LN metastasis outside
abdomen & pelvis
Stage V – bilateral disease at Dx
22
24. Management of WT
The management is guided by the NWTS protocol in the United States and the
SIOP protocol in Europe according to the stage of the tumor
Options of RX – Surgery, Chemotherapy & Radiotherapy
Prognostic factors
Histology
Stage
Response to Rx
LOH at 1p & 16q
The principles of surgery are as follows:
Palpation of liver, abdomen, and para-aortic region for regional spread of disease
Removal of intact specimen in total
Avoidance of local “spillage”
Nodal sampling
Palpation of the renal vein and IVC before ligation to rule out thrombus
Proper identification and avoidance of injury to contralateral renal vessels, aorta,
and iliac and superior mesenteric arteries
24
Unresectable Tumors
Extension of tumor thrombus above the level of the hepatic Veins
Bilateral tumors
Tumor in a solitary kidney
Pulmonary compromise resulting from extensive pulmonary
Metastases
When actual invasion is identified and radical en bloc resection (spleen, pancreas, and
colon ) is required to remove tumour
25. Chemotherapy
Dactinomycin is the backbone in the chemoRx against
WT
○ vincristine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide &
etoposide.
Vincristine & actinomycin D
Stage I & II favorable
Stage I unfavorable
Doxorubicine added
Stage III & IV favorable
Stage I – IV clear cell sarcoma
Cyclophosphamide added
Stage II – IV unfavorable
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26. Radiotherapy
In the COG protocols, it is recommended that abdominal irradiation be
delivered as soon as practical after nephrectomy and not later than 14 days
after surgery.
Flank Irradiation
-- Stage III favorable histology and Recurrent Wilms’ tumor
Whole Abdominal Irradiation
--Preoperative tumor rupture
-- Peritoneal metastases are found at initial surgery
-- A large intraoperative tumor spill affecting areas outside the tumor bed
as
determined by the surgeon/
--Diffuse unresectable peritoneal implants
Liver Irradiation
-- Patients with residual tumor will receive supplemental irradiation
Whole lung radiation
it is a major cause of long-term morbidity
○ CHF, Pulmonary fibrosis & second malignancy.
26
antigen–antibody
complex involving antibodies that cross-react with Purkinje
cells in the cerebellum
Bone metastases occur in sites containing red marrow and involve the metaphyseal areas of long bones in addition to the skull, vertebral column, pelvis, ribs, and sternum
COG study demonstrated that in almost half of patients with thoracic neuroblastoma is detected on incidental chest radiographs.
MRI is becoming the most useful and most sensitive imaging modality for the diagnosis and staging of neuroblastoma
When considering skeletal metastases alone, MRI and bone scan have been shown to be equivalent
Metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG)
Evans staging was proposed for children's Cancer Study group in 1971
Incisions
Abdominal incision –transverse , Chevron, or a midline incision
A transthoracic (intercostal), transdiaphragmatic extension
For adrenal or abdominal sympathetic- chain primaries
Open thoracotomy