3. 2.1. Unit Learning Objectives and Contents
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• Outline the steps involved in deductive research processes
• Outline the steps involved in inductive research
processes
• Discuss the Inductive research process
• Discuss the deductive research process
Contents:
The deductive research process
The Inductive research process
4. 2.1 Deductive vs Inductive Research Approaches
Research: applies logical reasoning
Deduction: Goes from general (theories) to specific (facts)
•Premise * Honest people do not steal
•Premise * John is honest
•Conclusion: John does not steal
Induction: Goes from facts to generalizations (theories)
• Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz and Aweke died.
• Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz are hman-beings
• Generalization: Human-beings are mortal.
NB: If the premises are true, the conclusion is correct
5. Research Types
Based on the Logic of Reasoning
Deductive
• From general to specific
• Arguments are based on
laws, rules and accepted
principles
Inductive
• From specific to general
• Based on facts, develop
principles or theories which
could later be used as basis
for deductive research
9. Find Research Topic and State Your Problem
Development of Working Hypothesis
Preparing the Research Design
Data collection & Administering data Collection
Analysis of Data
Hypothesis Testing
Generalization and Interpretation
Preparation of the Research Report
Literature Survey: Theoretical & Conceptual Framework
10. Step-1: Find Research Topic and State Your Problem
• Two approaches (paradigms) in problem definition:
The narrow-deep (e.g. in journal articles)
The broad-wide (e.g. in books)
• Both have their own purposes, advantages & disadvantages
• The first one is preferable for your MA thesis for better quality;
but getting focused is an iterative process
• Decide the general area of interest that has a feasible solution a
smaller part of a bigger problem
11. • Understand the problem - by reading & discussion.
• Narrow the problem down - an iterative process.
• Examine all available literature - the conceptual
(concepts and theories) and empirical literature.
• Verify the validity and objectivity of the background
facts concerning the problem.
• Define pertinent terms
What are key variables in your study?
What relationship do you investigate?
12. Checklist for a good research topic:
• Is the topic something in which you are really interested?
• Does the topic have a clear link to theory?
• Is the subject familiar and feasible to you?
• Do you have, or can you develop, the necessary research skills to
undertake the topic?
• Is your topic societal relevant?
• Is the subject overdone? (Avoid it)
• Is the subject controversial? (Avoid it)
• Is the problems too narrow or too vague/broad? (balance)
• Can you meet the cost and time requirements?
• Can you gain accessibility of necessary cooperation, etc.
13. Step-2: Literature Survey: Theoretical & Conceptual Framework
The Theoretical Framework
A summary of the relevant theories that you will refer to
in your study:
During the development of the hypotheses and the conceptual
framework
When you prepare the research design; do the data analysis
and generalization.
Indicates the important issues to be assessed or the variables to be
measured; their possible indicators; the type and direction of
relationship that exists among the variables, and so on.
14. If you fail to prepare the Theoretical Framework properly:
i. You will not have the basis to define relevant concepts, identify
the assessment issues or the variables and to define them.
ii. You don’t know what relationship to expect.
iii. It will not be easy for you to choose the appropriate research
design.
iv. Your data collection instruments will be ill designed.
v. During analysis, you will not have any theory to compare your
results with.
vi. The contribution of your research to the existing theory will be
blurred.
15. The Conceptual Framework
Is based on the theoretical framework
Defines operationally the concepts you will use in your research
Specifies the variables and indicators that you will use in your
study to measure the concepts?
Depicts how do the different concepts relate among each other?
Is best if supported by a graphical depiction.
You may create your illustrative diagram or adopt or adopt it
from the literature (clearly cite the sources)
16. Step 3: Development of Working Hypothesis
In a deductive logic, you should develop hypotheses
based on what the theory(ies) say about the phenomenon
and the relationships.
A Hypothesis:
Is a tentative assumption; specific and pertinent
Provides the focal point for the research; to delimit the
area, sharpen thinking and keep you - the researcher - on
the right track
Determines data type; data collection and sampling
methods; the tests that must be conducted during data
analysis, etc.
17. Step 4: Preparing the Research Design
The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
What is the study about?
Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
What periods of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will be used?
How will the data be analysed?
18. Important Concepts in Research Design
• A Variable: anything that takes on different values.
• A dependent variable: the one that you would like to study; it
depends on the independent variables.
• Independent variables: are those variables related to the study
and that affect your dependent variable.
• Extraneous Variables: independent variables not related to the
study but may affect the ‘dependent’ variable.
• Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is
affected by the extraneous variable(s),
• Experimental and control groups
19. The research design is decomposed into the following designs:
The sampling designs: method of selecting the sample.
The Observational design: Conditions under which the
observations are to be made.
The statistical design: How many items are to be observed and
how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
20. Important Elements of Research Design
• The Population:
• The sampling Frame:
• Sampling unit/units of analysis:
• Sample size:
• Method of sampling:
• Data Type and sources of data:
• Methods of data collection:
• Methods of analysis:
21. Step 5: Data collection & Administering data Collection
Data collection through:
• Observation
• Personal interview
• Telephone interview
• Mailing of questionnaire
• Schedule etc.
NB: we will discuss them in detail in another unit
22. Administering Data Collection (Managing the project)
Possible sources of bias during data collection:
Defective instruments, such as questionnaires, weighing
scales or other measuring equipment, etc
Observer bias
Effect of the interview on the informant
Information bias
The bias can be prevented by carefully planning data
collection and by pre-testing the data collection tools.
The biases will threaten the validity and reliability of your
study.
It is possible to certain extent to prevent them.
23. Managing the project (data collection process) involves the
following:
Organizing fieldwork
Briefing interviewers (enumerators) and coordinators (if
applicable)
Developing an analysis plan (e,g, Coding)
Organizing data processing (e.g. entering the coding of the
questionnaire items into EXCEL or SPSS spread sheet; entering
data before the data collection has been completed)
Starting the analysis
Checking and reporting progress of data collection
24. Step 6: Analysis of Data
Data Preparation Involves:
• Editing:- examining the raw (survey) data to detect error and
omission and to correct these when possible,
• Coding: –assigning numerals or other symbols to answer – in
Excel or in SPSS spreadsheets
• Classification: – The raw data must be grouped or classes on
the basis of common characteristic
• Tabulation /Compilation:- summarizing and displaying raw
data in compact form (statistical tables) for analysis.
Data Analysis (this will be addressed in detail in ARM II)
• Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods - depending on the research
design (exploratory, descriptive, etc) and approach (qualitative vs,
quantitative, or both).
25. Step 7: Hypothesis Testing
For quantitative researches, there are different types of
statistical tests of hypothesis: Chi-square test, t-test, F-test,
ANOVA, etc,
For qualitative researches, the generalizations that came as a
result of the research may be stated as hypothesis to be tested in
subsequent researches.
26. Step 8: Generalization and Interpretation
In explanatory studies, your generalization could be in the form
of statements regarding what factors explain the dependent
variable and whether this is in accordance with what is stated in
theory.
If you had no hypothesis at the beginning, explain the findings on
the basis of some theory known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may trigger new questions
which will serve as a basis for further researches.
27. Step 9: Preparation of the Research Report
While writing your report, pay attention to the language
(grammar, spelling), the format, citation, referencing styles.
In Microsoft Word, the software itself helps you check the
spelling and grammar.
You can download citation and referencing guidelines from www
depending on the particular referencing style
There also are other software that help you in citing and
referencing. Example - Endnote
You can also show your paper to friends & colleagues at least for
language editing
28. 2.3. The Inductive Research Process
Step 1: Develop General Research Questions
In Inductive/Qualitative researches:
• The research problem might not be well known/articulated
to start with.
• It is expressed with specification of the research
questions in a more general way.
• The research questions could be refined as the
research progresses.
29. Step 2: Formulate Tentative Hypothesis
No well defined theoretical/conceptual framework
The factors, variables and indicators cannot be well
identified in advance
Hence, a clear hypothesis cannot be formulated
However, a very tentative hypotheses can be
formulated based on prior experience.
• subject to modifications or alterations as the researcher
gains more insight into the problem
30. Step 3: Select Relevant Site & Subject(s)/Objects
Example, to understand the interfaces between tourism activities
and the life of the local community,
Site: certain tourist attraction sites such as natural attractions,
historical places, or places where cultural events take place.
Subjects could be: community leaders, community members
who work in tourist sites or managers of the sites.
Step 4: Understand the Context
Understand the site, subjects or object as they occur in the macro/micro
contexts and understanding the socio-cultural, economic, political,
institutional and historical context very important.
31. But How?
Making some general readings
Contacting resource persons
Making preliminary site visits and hanging out with people in
the area
Why understand the context?
To effectively design & administer the actual data collection process
To correctly analyze and interpret the results. For example:
Asking questions that do not give due respect to the subjects’
historical/cultural background may cause embracement among
the respondents.
32. Step 5: Decide on the Data Collection Method & Design the Process
Knowing and selecting the relevant data collection method(s) is
crucial in any research approach. The possible methods include:
Personal observation,
Interviews (personal or telephone),
Focus group studies and
Investigation of cases.
Therefore, try to choose an appropriate method or methods for your
research.
33. Designing the data collection process. If observation method is
applied for example, then decide on whether the observation will
be:
Covert or overt
Participant or nonparticipant
Mechanical or personal
Structured or unstructured, etc.
34. Framing (designing) interviews. While framing the interview:
Consider the historical and cultural context
Monitor the systemic validity of the frame & make necessary
adjustments before/during the data collection process.
Recognize that the interviewees also inspect the frame &
respond to it in some way, or reshape it (or even sabotage).
Framing the interview involves decisions on:
Who the Key informants are, how they will be identified,
selected and contacted (e.g., snowball)
The questions to be included
The setting (place and timing): office, home, in transport or
car, recreation place, timing (rush hour, meeting time), etc
35. The degree of restrictiveness of the setting (e.g.,
interrogative or relaxed) and
How the data will be gathered: observation, field notes,
audio or video recording.
Step 6: Gain Access to the Selected Sites and Subjects
But Why?
To establish trust & gain cooperation
The community/subjects may regard the researcher as a stranger
and be suspicious.
But How? For example depending on the context:
Hanging out with people for some time
Approaching community leaders
Participating in some events
Getting official permission, etc.
36. Step 7: Collect Relevant (Analyzable) Data
Why collect only relevant data?
To avoid being snowed under a bulk of relevant and irrelevant
information.
How to avoid irrelevant data?
Use the research questions & the tentative hypothesis as your
guide.
For example, during interviews, the researcher needs to (up on
consent):
o Take field notes (written memos)
o Do video/audio recording
o Take pictures
o Collect artifacts & other relevant data/objects
37. On your field note, you may jot down:
• Special moments,
• Emotions of the interviewee and
• Other expressions that may not be part of the spoken narrative.
Step 8: Data Analysis
A) Transcription of the narration
o Meaning: Converting the narration/story into a text that can be
retrieved in hard copy.
o Why transcribe? To help you to give some structure to it under
certain themes.
B) Looking for Patterns
• Meaning: tracing of textual patterns that are hidden in the
sociolinguistic resources (e.g., speech) performed by the
respondents.
38. How to establish patterns?
Look for the explicit answers to the questions paused
Also look into the implicit forms of the answers:
Gestures, intonations, facial expressions, etc.
Use an effective use of the field note or the recordings, in
addition to the transcription.
Use some methods: Example Ethno-poetics
Reorganization of the narrative without fabricating the data.
Reorganizing certain features of the first (unorganized)
transcription of the interview in lines, verses or units.
39. C) Interpretation, Association and Inference
Following the patterns, interpreting the findings and make
associations and inferences.
Look for any association between one event/factor and another
event/ factor.
Give meaning to the findings taking the context and your stock of
knowledge into account are very important.
D) Developing Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Based on your interpretation, association and inference, draw a
theoretical explanation and a conceptualization about:
o What cases the phenomenon?
o What are the relationships involved and dynamisms/mechanisms
within it?
40. oWhat are the concepts, factors, variables involved.
Check & refine the tentative working hypothesis that you
initially formulated.
E) Tighter Specification of Research Questions and Collection
of more Data (Optional)
You may refine the research questions based on the data
analysis.
If need be, the data collection process could be repeated until
you find no more new information.
If additional data is collected,
Improve the interpretation and
The proposed conceptual/ theoretical frameworks.
41. Step 9: Write-Up Findings and End the Research Process
Prepare the research report carefully
Adhere to the format developed by the university, publisher or
sponsor.
Check:
Structure & Language
Quality of your academic writing (see unit 5).
Inform the concerned parties (including the subjects) about your
findings and recommendations.
44. Group Discussion
1. Explain the logics of Deduction and Induction
reasoning by Giving examples.
2. What steps does deductive research follow?
3. What steps does inductive research follow?
