SPE 5 Grand Challenges : Challenges in Reusing Produced Water

1. 1
Challenges in Reusing Produced Water
SPE White Paper
Introduction
Produced water is an inextricable part of the hydrocarbon recovery processes, yet it is by far
the largest volume waste stream associated with hydrocarbon recovery. Water production
estimates are in the order of 250 million B/D in 2007, for a water-to-oil ratio around 3:1, and
are expected to increase to more than 300 million B/D between 2010 and 2012 (Fig. 1, Dal
Ferro and Smith 2007). Increasingly stringent environmental regulations require extensive
treatment of produced water from oil and gas productions before discharge; hence the
treatment and disposal of such volumes costs the industry annually more than USD 40
billion. Consequently, for oil and gas production wells located in water-scarce regions,
limited freshwater resources in conjunction with the high treatment cost for produced water
discharge makes beneficial reuse of produced water an attractive opportunity.
Fig. 1 - Global onshore and offshore water production (Dal Ferro and Smith 2007).
Water consumption worldwide is roughly split, with 70% agricultural use, 22% industrial
use, and 8% domestic use (UNESCO 2003). A fifth of the population lives in areas of water
scarcity, and one in eight lacks access to clean water. Currently, properly treated produced
water can be recycled and used for waterflooding [produced water re-injection (PWRI)] and
other applications, such as crop irrigation, wildlife and livestock consumption, aquaculture
and hydroponic vegetable culture, industrial processes, dust control, vehicle and equipment
washing, power generation, and fire control (Veil et al. 2004). These beneficial reuses
directly decrease the withdrawal of potable water, a highly valuable commodity in many
regions of the world. Although produced water can potentially be treated to drinking water
quality (Tao et al. 1993; Doran et al. 1997; Kharaka et al. 1998; Funston et al. 2002; Xu et al.
2008), little research has been done on the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of direct or
indirect potable reuse of produced water from oil and gas production.

2. 2
Produced Water and Treatment Alternatives
Produced Water and Typical Treatment. Produced water is the aqueous liquid phase
that is co-produced from a producing well along with the oil and/or gas phases during
normal production operations. This includes water naturally occurring alongside
hydrocarbon deposits, as well as water injected into the ground. The following are the
main contaminants of concern in produced water:
• High level of total dissolved solids (TDS)
• Oil and grease
• Suspended solids
• Dispersed oil
• Dissolved and volatile organic compounds
• Heavy metals
• Radionuclides
• Dissolved gases and bacteria.
• Chemicals (additives) used in production such as biocides, scale and corrosion inhibitors,
and emulsion and reverse-emulsion breakers
The amount of produced water, and the contaminants and their concentrations present in
produced water usually vary significantly over the lifetime of a field. Early on, the water
generation rate can be a very small fraction of the oil production rate, but it can increase with
time to tens of times the rate of oil produced. In terms of composition, the changes are
complex and site-specific because they are a function of the geological formation, the oil and
water (both in-situ and injected) chemistry, rock/fluid interactions, the type of production,
and required additives for oil-production-related activities.
Fig. 2 shows the typical treatment that produced water receives in oil and gas field
operations. Treatment has three main stages. In pre-treatment, the bulk of the oil and gas, as
well as coarse particles are removed. This is followed by the main treatment, which focuses
on further removal of small hydrocarbon droplets and small particles from the water. This is
achieved in two steps of treatment. The primary step removes larger hydrocarbon droplets
and large solid particles, as well as hydrocarbon slugs. A secondary step goes after smaller
droplets and particles, and it encompasses the bulk of the de-oiling equipment used in the
upstream industry. This secondary step is usually sufficient to reduce the dispersed
hydrocarbon content to below the typical offshore discharge level of 40 mg/L. Then, there is
a final polishing treatment, which can be optional, where the oil concentration is lowered to
levels typically below 10 mg/L. The implementation of this last treatment depends on either
the regulatory framework or an operational requirement if water is going to be re-injected for
either disposal or as part of the waterflood operations in the field. Sometimes an additional
treatment is required, where the final effluent stream must have a high quality. In this case,
oil concentration is typically below 5 mg/L, and there are usually other restrictions that must
be met such as heavy metals content, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) levels, and so on.

3. 3
Fig. 2 - Typical water treatment process in the oil and gas industry
(modified from Shell 2009).
Treatment Alternatives
Considering the main contaminants present in produced water, treatment goals include de-
oiling, desalination, degassing, suspended solids removal, organic compounds removal,
heavy metal and radionuclides removal, and disinfection. These treatment goals are
essentially the same for potable, nonpotable reuse, or disposal, although the level of
contaminant removal required for potable reuse can be significantly higher, depending on the
quality of the produced water.
Achieving the various treatment goals requires the use of multiple treatment
technologies, including physical, chemical, and biological treatment processes (Ahmadun et
al. 2009). Some of the technologies employed are:
Removal of dissolved organic compounds: (1) adsorption [by activated carbon,
organoclay, methylmethacrylate (MMA) - divinyl benzene (DVB) copolymer, functionalized
zeolite, functionalized polymer fibers and resins]; (2) dissolved air predipitation; (3) chemical
(e.g., ozonation, fenton process), electrochemical or photocatalytic (e.g., TiO2) oxidation; (4)
biological degredation; and (5) nanofiltration or reverse osmosis.
Removal of metals: (1) aeration + settling + sand filtration; (2) ion exchange; (3)
reverse osmosis.
Suspended solids removal: (1) coagulation/flocculation + sedimentation + filtration;
(2) microfiltration or ultrafiltration.
Conditioning
of
the
water
stream
in
the
upstream
process.
Facilities
includes
dehydration
vessels,
storage
tanks,
strainers
etc.
Coarse
solid
particle
Fine
solid
particle
Charged
particle
Large
oil
droplet
Small
oil
droplet
Dissolved
matter
Initial
Contamination
Pre-­‐Treatment
Main
Treatment
Polishing
Treatment
Removal
of
large
droplets
Removal
of
coarse
particles
Aggregate
charged
particles
Reduce
dispersed
contaminants
Remove
gas
bubbles
Primary
Treatment:
Removal
small
droplets
&
particles
Removal
of
ultra-­‐small
droplets
Removal
of
ultra-­‐small
particles
Dispersed
hydrocarbons
typically
below
10
mg/l
Equipment
includes
skim
tanks,
API
separators
and
plate
pack
interceptors
Equipment
includes
hydrocyclones,
gas
flotation,
centrifuges
Secondary
Treatment
(main
phase):
Removal
of
smaller
droplets
&
particles
Final
clean-­‐up,
often
required
where
water
is
to
be
re-­‐injected
for
disposal
or
PWRI,
or
where
feed
is
to
pass
to
a
tertiary
treatment
stage.
Equipment
includes
dual
media
filters,
cartridge
filters,
membranes
Tertiary
Treatment
Produces
an
effluent
stream
of
high
quality
(strict
restrictions
on
BOD,
heavy
metals
and
others)
– not
always
required.
Processes
such
as
gas
or
steam
stripping,,
biological
treatments
and
activated
carbon
adsorption
are
used
Remove
dissolved
matter
and
gases
Dispersed
hydrocarbons
typically
below
5
mg/l
Typical
TreatmentOptional
Treatment

4. 4
Research on treatment strategies for reclamation of domestic and industrial wastewater
for reuse requiring high water quality has centered around reverse osmosis (RO) (Singh,
2008). RO can remove TDS and a wide range of dissolved organic compounds at very high
efficiency. A number of laboratory and pilot-scale studies have demonstrated that drinking
water standards can be met after RO treatment in combination with a number of pretreatment
processes, including membrane filtration pretreatment using microfiltration or ultrafiltraiton
membranes. (Tao et al. 1993; Ahmadun et al. 2009; Xu et al. 2008). The main problem with
the RO treatment is the high TDS and oil contents of produced water, which result in very
high osmotic pressure and fouling of the RO membranes by hydrocarbon compounds. The
pretreatment processes remove oil droplets, suspended solids (e.g., coagulation and
flocculation, sand or membrane filtration), metals (e.g., chemical precipitation), and dissolved
organic compounds (e.g., adsorption, chemical oxidation, and biological degradation), and
protect the RO membranes from excessive fouling at the same time. Many oil fields already
have extensive treatment facilities for discharge requirement. These existing treatment
processes can be used as the pretreatment for RO. At locations where land is more available,
biological treatment could be a low-cost option for RO pretreatment. Pretreatment or post-
treatment processes are also needed to remove dissolved gas and uncharged, low-molecular-
weight compounds, which are not removed by RO membranes.
Because the idea of using produced water as an alternative drinking water supply is still
in its infancy and the quality of produced water varies greatly from location to location, little
is known about the feasibility of potable reuse and the level of treatment needed. However,
much can be learned from the reuse of other alternative water sources such as domestic
wastewater, the reuse of which has grown rapidly in the past two decades. Although not
usually considered a way of reuse, indirect potable reuse is realized when the treated
produced water is discharged into a water body used as a drinking water source. Planned
indirect potable reuse may be achieved by surface infiltration (also known as aquifer soil
treatment) or vadose zone injection of highly treated produced water into drinking water
aquifers with a relatively long hydraulic residence time. This approach has been used for
indirect potable reuse of domestic wastewater. Percolation of the treated produced water
through the surface and vadose zone soil can further remove residual contaminants by
filtration, adsorption, and chemical and biological degradation. When RO is used to treat the
produced water, post treatment is usually needed to ensure that the solution chemistry of the
reuse water is compatible with the aquifer. For example, RO-treated recharge water typically
has very low TDS and low calcium to sodium ratio, which can potentially lead to dispersion
of clays and consequently clogging of the aquifer as well as leaching of heavy metal species
from the soil or the aquifer formation. This can be mitigated by strategies such as lime
addition or blending with a local surface water source. Long-term impact of treated produced
water on drinking water aquifer needs to be carefully studied.
Direct potable reuse can be a possible option for inland production fields located in arid
areas where other freshwater sources are limited, especially if the produced water is of
relatively high quality. As discussed below, unknown toxic effects and public acceptance are
important barriers. These are critical issues for potable reuse of all wastewaters and are not
unique to produced water. Much can be learned from reuse applications of other wastewaters.
Opportunities and Challenges
The rapid growth of the world population poses a great challenge to our drinking water
supply. Agriculture and energy production draws more and more freshwater, while producing
more contamination of the already scarce freshwater resource. Effluent streams that once
were treated as “waste” are now considered a valuable “resource.” The large quantity of

5. 5
produced water generated from oil and gas production worldwide can be potential freshwater
sources for various applications, including potable consumption.
Potable reuse of produced water faces similar challenges to other types of wastewater.
These challenges include high treatment cost, potential chronic toxicity of the treated
produced water, and public acceptance. Additionally, the amount and properties of the
produced water change over time, making a “one size fits all” solution unlikely.
With respect to oil and gas produced water, the treatment cost strongly depends on the
physical and chemical characteristics of the produced water, which can vary widely among
production fields and change over time within a given field, and the regulatory environment.
For example, produced water from gas production, especially coalbed methane production,
typically has lower TDS, oil, and grease content than that from oil production, treatment of
which could potentially be competitive with other wastewater sources. Therefore, technology
solutions for potable reuse of produced water would need to be customized accordingly to the
properties of the produced water and the amount of water to be treated.
Because of the need for desalination and removal of a large number of organic
compounds, RO will most likely be used for potable reuse applications. Although RO is
capable of removing many organic compounds at high efficiency, the combined chronic
toxicity of the organic compounds existing in mixture in the RO permeate needs to be
carefully evaluated before direct reuse is implemented. It has been shown that the toxicity of
dissolved organic compounds in produced water can be additive (Glickman 1998). The
current drinking water standards were established based on the human health risk associated
with individual contaminants. A method for establishing maximum safe contaminant
concentrations based on combined impact of the contaminant mixture is needed. In addition,
potential formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) needs to be evaluated. Existing studies
on DBP formation were mostly performed using surface water, groundwater, or reclaimed
domestic wastewater. The DBP formation potential of treated produced water has not been
investigated. Although the total organic carbon concentration of RO-treated produced water
is low, the presence of iodide and bromide can potentially form DBPs that are much more
toxic than chlorinated DBPs (Woo et al. 2002).
Finally, the greatest barrier, as in domestic wastewater reuse, is probably public
acceptance. Although existing technologies have been demonstrated to meet current drinking
water standards (Ahmadun et al. 2009; Xu et al. 2008), there are concerns on unknown toxic
effects or unknown toxic compounds. Until the human health impact of chemical mixtures
are better understand, toxicity assays are necessary to address concerns on the potential
synergy between toxic compounds and the possibility of undetected toxic compounds in the
treated produced water.
References
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Z.Z. 2009. Review of technologies for oil and gas produced water treatment. Journal of
Hazardous Materials 170: 530-551
Bailey, B., Crabtree, M., Tyrie, J., Elphick, J., Kuchuk, F., Romano, C. and Roodhart, L.
2000. Water Control. Oilfield Review Spring 2000: 30-51.
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Doran, G.F., Carini, F.H., Fruth, D.A., Drago, J.A. and Leong, L.Y.C. 1997. Evaluation of
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6. 6
Funston, R., Rajagopalan, G. and Leong, L.Y.C. 2002. Proc. 2002 GWPC Produced Water
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Produced
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Steps
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