2. Gender and gender roles in world religions
Women’s roles in religious institutions
Why do women join or stay in religious communities
in which they are clearly subordinate to men?
Why, on average, are women more religious than
men?
Feminism and religion
First-, second-, and third-wave feminism and religion
5. God is mostly presented as male (Jesus Christ is “God made
flesh” in the male sex.)
Catholicism provides more room for female figures: the
Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus
Protestant Reformation: the masculinization of
Christianity
Women have been seen as subordinate to man in both
creation and in daily life (origin myths; Saul/Paul; Martin
Luther)
Equality between the sexes has been taught regarding
salvation (both sexes have souls and both can be “saved”)
6. God is mostly presented as male
At times God is represented through feminine images
and the feminine image of Sophia (wisdom) is
important
Hierarchical structure that subordinates women to
men
Women have been seen as subordinate to man in both
creation and in daily life (origin myths)
7. Like Judeo-Christianity, the spiritual equality of women and men is recognized
Some Hadiths characterize female companions of the prophet in a positive way
However, some Hadiths describe the “nature of women” in a negative way
“the testimony of a woman is worth half of that of a man” because women are
deficient in intellect
Women are prohibited from leadership roles
Ideal marriage is based on complementarity not equality (men have the power
and men protect and maintain women; women obey; women may be
“punished” physically)
Islamic feminist Riffat Hassan explains negative attitudes toward women in
Muslim societies are based on the following assumptions:
Man is the origin of creation
Women are defined as temptresses
Women were created as a means for men
God is mostly presented as male
8. In the Vedas, the gods are mostly male, which reflects a
patriarchal society
In Hinduism only the pure can reach spiritual freedom:
higher-caste men are the only people who can achieve the
required level of purity
Women are connected to impurity (negative) whereas men
are connected to purity (positive)
“Impure” menstruating women cannot cook nor enter a
temple
However, Hinduism has a strong tradition of goddess
worship
The divine cosmic energy (Shakti) is female
The great Goddess Devi is female, the mother of the universe
9. Origins traced to Guru Nanak (b. 1469)
He denounced sati (burning of widows), veiling, and
beliefs in menstrual “pollution”
In his community women and men had relatively
equal status, but then…
The Tenth Guru founded in 1699 the Khalsa, an elite
brotherhood; a new emphasis on masculine (and
militant) features
Sikh scriptures uphold elements of gender equality
although the religion is still affected by its long history
of masculine emphasis
10. The Buddha taught that spiritual freedom (nirvana)
could be achieved by women and men (unlike in
Hinduism)
After the Buddha, two strands developed
One was anti-woman: women were presented as ugly,
blind, wretched, with enormous sexual appetites (men
were noble, loyal, generous and holy)
Other was not anti-woman: there are female deities,
enlightenment is available to both
Today, various strands of Buddhism exist and have
different views about women and women’s status
11. Within traditional religions, women and men tend to
view God and faith differently
For men, God is about power and judgment (and God is
a personal God)
For women, God is about love and community (and the
nature of God is uncertain)
Women have formed various alternative pathways for
exploring religion outside of traditional religions
Feminist Chrisitianity/Judaism/etc; Wicca; Goddess
worship
12. Women’s roles vary greatly depending on the type of
religion being practiced (orthodox, conservative, liberal)
Some women in all traditions see themselves as relatively
secular and act accordingly (while being believers)
Some women play important leadership and community
roles, typically in more liberal strands of traditional religions
Other women, typically in conservative communities, have
more restricted (and subordinate and limited) roles
Generally, women in the West (no matter in which religion)
play more powerful and prevalent leadership roles than in
non-Western countries
13. Scholars argue that these traditions may attract women for a variety
of reasons
Some women, in times of great change, look for a type of certainty and
stability of traditional roles
Some women are attracted by the clear delineation (definition) of
distinct and conventional roles for men and women, and of the patterns
for nuclear family life
14. Social and contextual reasons:
Because women are socialized to be more submissive,
passive, obedient, and nurturing than men, women are
more religious (gender-socialization theory)
Because women tend to have lower participation rates in
the labor force, women have more time for religious
activities; and women’s involvement in raising children
leads them to be more religiously involved (structural
location theory)
Individual, psychological reasons:
Individuals who are more feminine are also more
religious
15. Feminists (Western feminists, in particular) have
claimed that religiously active women have “false
consciousness”
They lack a true understanding of themselves and the
oppressive forces of religion
16. 19th century movements for women’s rights in North
America and Europe that essentially promoted
equality between the sexes
First-wave feminist movements were both opposed to
in some ways and, in other ways, intertwined with
religion
For example, the Temperance Movement (anti-alcohol)
was based in religious movements
Thus, religious movements provided models that
women later adopted for political movements
17. 1960s and 1970s movements against “patriarchy”
Many feminists (mostly scholars) at this time criticized
Christianity and attempted to form a feminist (and feminine)
theology
Most famous example: Mary Daly, The Church and the Second Sex,
1978
Later scholars pointed out weaknesses in these studies:
They focused on Christian symbolism rather than practice within
religious organizations
They used the concept of “patriarchy” to describe many different
phenomena
They looked at religious women as victims
They presented men and women as fundamentally different beings
(women were positive, men negative); in other words, they
essentialized both men and women
18. 1990s+ movements that explore gender as a social
construction
Gender differences are seen as flexible, complex, and only
loosely connected to the body (that is, biological sex)
And because women are not all “one,” there cannot be just
one feminism—there must be several types
Third-wave feminists (mostly scholars) have looked at how
religion may benefit women and men; women are not seen
as just victims
Religion is seen as not just “purely patriarchal”—it can be
oppressive but it can also provide empowerment and
resources to those involved