How to write Essays . University of Toronto

1. University of Toronto
writing courses
ADVICE ON ACADEMIC WRITING
College: ISFD N°41
Subject: Language and Written Expression IV
Student: Gianella, Jacqueline
Teacher: Saubidet, Stella
Date: May, 2020

2. INDEX
 General
 Planning and Organizing
 Reading and Researching
 Using Sources
 Specific Types of Writing
 Style and Editing
 English as a Second Language
 Further Resources

3. General
 An essay consist of:
1. An Argument which should answer a question or a few related question
2. It should Prove something by reasoning and evidence, especially including apt examples and
confirming citations from any particular text or sources your argument involves.
3. It should include citations from any particular text or sources(evidence).
4. It should contain a Topic. The writer should formulate The question(s) he/she will seek to answer
in the essay. Then develop a provisional thesis or hypothesis.
5. The essay’s organization should be designed to present your argument clearly and persuasively.

4. Planning and Organizing
Organizing parts of an essay
 First of all, ask you the following questions:
What type of essay am I going to be writing? Does it belong to a specific genre?
The genres of essay can be a book review, a lab report, a document study, or a compare-and-contrast essay. Most university type
of essays are argumentative, and there is no set pattern for the shape of an argumentative essay.
Using thesis statements:
 Every paper requires one. Assignments that ask you to write personal responses or to explore a subject don’t want you to seem to
pre-judge the issues. Essays of literary interpretation often want you to be aware of many effects rather than seeming to box yourself
into one view of the text.
 A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph. This is a natural position for a statement of focus, but it’s not the only
one. Some theses can be stated in the opening sentences of an essay; others need a paragraph or two of introduction; others can’t
be fully formulated until the end.
 A thesis statement must be one sentence in length, no matter how many clauses it contains. Clear writing is more important than
rules like these. Use two or three sentences if you need them. A complex argument may require a whole tightly-knit paragraph to
make its initial statement of position.
 You can’t start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement. It may be advisable to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis
statement near the start of a big project, but changing and refining a thesis is a main task of thinking your way through your ideas as
you write a paper. And some essay projects need to explore the question in depth without being locked in before they can provide
even a tentative answer.
 A thesis statement must give three points of support. It should indicate that the essay will explain and give evidence for its assertion,
but points don’t need to come in any specific number.

5. INTRODUCTIONS:
 A good introduction should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate
your particular focus in the essay. It also needs to engage your readers’ interest.
 The introduction for most paper can be effectively written in one paragraph occupying half
to three-quarters of the first page.
 Try to get to the point as soon as possible.Generally, you want to raise your topic in your
very first sentences. A common error is to begin too broadly or too far off topic.
 Your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of your introduction.
CONCLUSIONS:
 A strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while again placing your
concepts in a somewhat wider context.
 It is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your thesis.
 It involves critical thinking in order to make a reflection of what was written.

6. PARAGRAPHS :
• a paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences that supports one central, unified idea.
• It is a series of related sentences developing a central idea,called the topic.
• A topic sentence has a specific main point of the paragraph.
• All of the paragraph should be related to the thesis.
• The best overall strategy to enhance flow within a paragraph is to show connections
(deliberate repetition, strategic use of pronouns, specialized linking words).
TECHNIQUES TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH:
• Illustration: Supports a general statement by means of examples, details, or relevant
quotations.
• The definition paragraph: It defines a term and other related ones.
• The analysis or classification paragraph: Develops a topic by distinguishing its component
parts and discussing each of these parts separately.
• A comparison or a contrast paragraph: Zeroes in on a key similarity or difference between,
for instance, two sources, positions, or ideas.
• A qualification paragraph: Acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not absolutely
true or always applicable.
• The process paragraph: Involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Process
description often follows a chronological sequence.

7. USING TOPIC SENTENCES :
• A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis for the
paragraph.When read in sequence, your essay’s topic sentences will provide a sketch of the
essay’s argument.
• Topics sentences help protect your readers from confusion by guiding them through the
argument. But topic sentences can also help you to improve your essay by making it easier for
you to recognize gaps or weaknesses in your argument.
• You might think of it as a signpost for your readers—or a headline—something that alerts them
to the most important, interpretive points in your essay.

8. Reading and Researching
 The very first thing you need to do is to focus your approach to the topic before eou start
detailed research. Review the commonly known facts about your topic, and also become
aware of the range of thinking opinions on it. Then, choose a component or angle that
interests you, perhaps one which there is already some controversy. Formulate your research
question. It should allow for reasoning as well as gathering of information. Do not forget to
write down every idea, quotation, facts and theories that help answer your question.
 Critical Reading towards critical writing: To read critically is to make judgements about how
a text is argued. This is highly reflective skill requiring you to “stand back” and gain soe
distance from the text you are Reading. Do not read looking only or primarily for information
but do read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter.

9.  SKIMMING: By skimming a text, you can get a sense of its overall logical progression.
Help you decisions about where to place your greatest focus when you have limited
time for your reading.
 SCANNING: To locate a particular fact or figure. Keep a specific set of goals in mind
as you scan the text, and avoid becoming distracted by other material.
 SUMMARIZING: Summarizing a text, or distilling its essential concepts into a paragraph
or two, is a useful study tool as well as good writing practice. A summary has two
aims(1) to reproduce the overarching ideas in a text, identifying the general concepts
that run through the entire piece, and (2) to express these overarching ideas using
precise, specific language. You must make decisions about which concepts to leave in
and which to omit, taking into consideration your purposes in summarizing and also
your view of what is important in this text.

10. Using sources
 HOW NOT TO PLAGIARIZE: It’s against the rules to buy essays or copy chunks from
your friend’s homework, and it’s also plagiarism to borrow passages from books or
articles or Web sites without identifying them
 STANDARD DOCUMENTATIONS FORMATS: Different disciplines use their own systems
to set out information about sources.
 USING QUOTATIONS:Quotations come from somewhere, and your reader will want to
know where.
 PARAPHRASE AND SUMMARY:To paraphrase means to restate someone else’s ideas
in your own language at roughly the same level of detail. To summarize means to
reduce the most essential points of someone else’s work into a shorter form. Along
with quotation, paraphrase and summary provide the main tools for integrating your
sources into your papers.

11. Specific Types of writing
 THE BOOK REVIEW OR ARTICLE CRITIQUE: An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a
summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical
concerns in a course.
 WRITING AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: An annotated bibliography gives an account of the research that
has been done on a given topic. Like any bibliography, an annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of
research sources. In addition to bibliographic data, an annotated bibliography provides a concise summary of
each source and some assessment of its value or relevance
 THE LITERATURE REVIEW: A FEW TIPS ON CONDUCTING IT: A literature review is an account of what has been
published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
 THE ABSTRACT: Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the document that follows,
letting readers decide whether to continue reading and showing them what to look for if they do. An abstract
should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and qualitative information in the document, and
also reflect its reasoning.
 THE COMPARATIVE ESSAY: A comparative essay asks that you compare at least two (possibly more) items.
These items will differ depending on the assignment.

12.  WRITING ABOUT HISTORY:
When writing a historical research paper, your goal is to choose a topic and write a paper that
1. Asks a good historical question
2. Tells how its interpretation connects to previous work by other historians, and
3. Offers a well-organized and persuasive thesis of its own.
 WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE TIPS:
1. Avoid plot summary.
2. Master the art of the analytical thesis.
3. Let the structure of your argument determine the structure of your paper.
4. Opt for analysis instead of evaluative judgments.
5. Don’t confuse the author with the speaker.
6. Integrate quotations fully into your argument.
 WRITING A PHILOSOPHY ESSAY:
In studying philosophy, students aim to do the following:
1. understand such philosophical questions and the concepts, arguments, and theories that philosophers use to address them
2. think critically about such arguments and theories
3. develop their own answers to philosophical questions
Writing philosophy essays is a key part of studying philosophy.

13.  WRITING IN THE SCIENCES:
A science paper should be written in a clear and concise style, its paragraphs should be
coherent, and its ideas should be well organized.
 HOW TO USE ACTIVE VOICE IN THE SCIENCES:
Science journals are returning to a preference for the active voice, and university science
departments are following suit, though they have lagged behind somewhat. Several influential
science journals—Science, Nature, and the British Medical Journal, among others—are quite
explicit in this preference.
 EFFECTIVE ADMISSION LETTERS TIPS:
1. Be focussed.
2. Be coherent
3. Be interpretive.
4. Be specific.
5. Be personal.

14.  APPLICATION LETTERS AND RÉSUMÉS:
 Specific Points about the Application Letter:
1. Write a letter for each application, tailored for the specific situation.
2. Use standard letter format, with internal addresses (spell names correctly!) and salutations.
3. Most application letters for entry-level jobs are one page in length—a substantial page rather than a skimpy one.
4. Start strong and clear.
5. Use paragraph structure to lead your reader from one interpretive point to another.
6. End strongly by requesting an interview.
 Specific Points about the Résumé
(in academic life usually called curriculum vitae or c.v.)
1. Have more than one on hand, emphasizing different aspects of your qualifications or aims.
2. Make them easy to read by using headings, point form, and lots of white space.
3. The basic choice is between the traditional chronological organization (with the main sections Education and Experience) and
the functional one (where sections name types of experience or qualities of character).
4. List facts in reverse chronological order, with the most recent ones first. Shorten some lists by combining related entries (e.g. part-
time jobs).
 THE ACADEMIC PROPOSAL:
An academic proposal is the first step in producing a thesis or major project. Its intent is to convince a supervisor or academic committee
that your topic and approach are sound, so that you gain approval to proceed with the actual research.

15.  ACADEMIC PROPOSALS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL:
There is no one formula for a thesis proposal, given the range of disciplines and organizational sequences for processing it. You have to think on:
1. Process (how to do it).
2. Function (what it’s for).
3. Rhetoric (how it gets through).
 THE LAB REPORT:
Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering and can count for as much as 25% of a course yet little time or attention is
devoted to how to write them well.
 Typical Components
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment)
5. Experimental Procedure
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Appendices
11. Further Reading

16.  ORAL PRESENTATIONS TIPS:
1. Sign up early.
2. It helps to know what’s expected of you.
3. Choose your topic carefully.
4. Define the scope of your research.
5. Organize your talk as you would an essay.
6. Try to make use of supplementary media to illustrate or illuminate aspects of your talk.
7. Leave time to rehearse your presentation.
8. It’s important to feel comfortable about the way you look, and to be relaxed and
confident, during your presentation.
9. Treat your presentation like a well-planned performance.
10. Handle questions with confidence.
11. After your seminar, take time to assess your “performance.”

17. Style and Editing
 REVISING AND EDITING:
Revising may mean changing the shape and reasoning in your paper. It often means adding
or deleting sentences and paragraphs, shifting them around, and reshaping them as you go.
Before dealing with details of style and language(editing), be sure you have presented ideas
that are clear and forceful. Make note as you go through these questions, and stop after
each section to make the desired revisions. First check whether you have fulfilled the
intention of the assignment. Then, look at overall organization. It’s worthwhile to print out
everything so that you can view the entire document. Now, polish and edit your style by
moving to smaller matters such as word choice, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation,
and spelling. You may already have passages that you know need further work. This is
where you can use computer programs(with care) and reference material such as
handbooks and handouts.

18. BASIC EXPECTATIONS FOR ANY TYPE OF ASSIGNMENT:
 Looks do count, give your instructor the pleasure of handling a handsome
document or at leats of not getting annoyed or inconvienced. These are the basic
expectations for any type of assignment.
 Include a cover page giving the title of your paper, the name of the course, your
name, the date, an the instructor’s name. Do not bother with coloured paper,
Fancy print, or decorations.
 Number your pages in the top right-hand corner. Omit the number for the first
page of your paper(since it Will be headed by the title), starting in with 2 on the
second page.
 Double-space your text, including intended quotations, footnotes, and reference
lists. Leave margings of one inch(2.5 cm) on all sides of the page.
 Use a stdndard Font in twelve-point size. For easier Reading, do not right-justify
your lines.
 Put the reference list or bibliography on a separate page at the end.(See the
handout on Standard Documentation Format: choose your format, then use the
examples as guides)
 Staple your pages;do not use a bulky biding or cover.

19. English as a Second Language
 USING ARTICLES:
Articles are special modifiers that appear before nouns or noun phrases. There are only two articles in the English
language: the and a (and its variant an, used before a word that starts with a vowel sound).Take into account if it is
Singular o Plural, Countable or incountable and Definite or Indefinite.
1. A noun is countable if you can have more than one instance of it. The word exam is countable because you can have,
say, four exams scheduled at the end of the year. The word concentration, however, is uncountable, because it would
not make sense to speak of having four concentrations, even though you will need a lot of concentration to study for
all four exams. Many words have both countable and uncountable meanings, depending on the sentence.
2. Knowing whether the particular use of a noun is singular or plural is quite straightforward. Just ask the question, Am I
referring to more than one instance of something?
3. A noun is definite when it is clear to your reader which specific instance or instances of an entity you are referring to;
otherwise it is indefinite. Often the first use of a noun is indefinite and subsequent uses are definite.
 SPECIAL CASES IN THE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE:
To decide if you should use the word the, ask yourself these three questions:
1. Is the noun indefinite (unspecified) or definite (specific)?
2. Is the noun modified?
3. Is the noun generic?

20.  EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY: SPECIAL CASES OF SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT:
1. With fractions, percentages and indefinite quantifiers (e.g., all, few, many, much, some), the
verb agrees with the preceding noun or clause.
2. The words majority and minority are used in a variety of ways.
3. Expressions of time, money and distance usually take a singular verb.
4. Adjectives preceded by the and used as plural nouns take a plural verb.
5. Expressions using the phrase number of depend on the meaning of the phrase.
 USING GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES:
Gerunds and infinitives are verb forms that can take the place of a noun in a sentence. Following
an indirect object (infinitive only). Some verbs are followed by a pronoun or noun referring to a
person, and then an infinitive. Gerunds cannot be used in this position.
 VERBS FOR REFERRING TO SOURCES:
You can indicate your attitude to the sources you cite by choosing specific verbs to refer to them

21. Further Resources
 ADVICE ON ACADEMIC WRITING:
The advice files on this site answer the kinds of questions that University of
Toronto students ask about their written assignments.

22. Bibliography
 Prof. C.A Silber (n.d.) “ Some general advice on Academic Writing Essay”.Toronto, Canada.:
Univerty of Toronto. Website: https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca
 Jerry Plotnick(n.d.) Oraganizing an essay. Toronto, Canada.: Univerty of Toronto. Website:
https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca
 Deborah Knott(n.d.)Researching. Toronto, Canada.: Univerty of Toronto. Website:
https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca
 Margaret Procter(n.d.) Revising and Editing. Toronto, Canada.: Univerty of Toronto. Website:
https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca