Introduction (Facts, Geography and Writing) History of China (Ancient History) History of China (Dynastic Period 1600 BCE-1911 CE) Greatest Philosophers Religion Chinese Literature (Dynastic Period) Sample Literary Piece of the Period History of China (Modern Period) Chinese Literature (Modern Period) Sample Literary Piece of the Period

1. History of China (Modern Period)
Republic of China (1912-1949)
On1 January 1912,the Republic ofChinawasestablished,andSun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang(theKMT or
NationalistParty) was proclaimedprovisional president. However,the presidencywaslater given to Yuan
Shikai,a formerQinggeneralwhoin1915proclaimedhimselfEmperorofChina.In the faceof popular
condemnationandoppositionfrom hisownBeiyangArmy, hewas forcedto abdicateandre-establishthe
republic.
After Yuan Shikai's deathin 1916,Chinawas politicallyfragmented.Its Beijing-basedgovernmentwas
internationallyrecognizedbutvirtually powerless;regionalwarlordscontrolledmostofits territory. In the late
1920s,the Kuomintang,underChiangKai-shek,wasabletoreunifythe countryunderits own controlwitha seriesof deft militaryand
politicalmaneuverings,knowncollectivelyasthe NorthernExpedition.
Chinese Civil War
In 1927, Chiangturnedon the CPCand relentlesslychasedthe CPCarmiesandits leadersfrom theirbases
in southernandeastern China.In 1934, driven from their mountainbasessuchasthe ChineseSoviet
Republic,theCPCforcesembarkedonthe LongMarchacrossChina'smostdesolateterrainto the northwest,
wherethey establishedaguerrillabaseat Yan'an in ShanxiProvince.
Duringthe LongMarch,thecommunistsreorganizedunderanewleader,MaoZedong(MaoTse-tung).The
bitter strugglebetweenthe KMT andtheCPC continued,openlyor clandestinely,through the 14-yearlong
Japaneseinvasion(1931-1945),even thoughthe two partiesnominallyformedaunited front to opposethe
Japaneseinvadersin 1937, duringtheSino-JapaneseWar(1937-1945)portionof World War II.
World War II (Second-Sino Japanese War)
TheSecondSino-JapaneseWar(1937-1945),atheaterof World War II, forcedan uneasyalliancebetweentheKuomintangandthe
PLA. Japaneseforcescommittednumerouswaratrocitiesagainstthecivilianpopulation;inall,as manyas 20 millionChinese civilians
died.
An estimated200,000Chineseweremassacredinthecityof Nanjing aloneduringthe
Japaneseoccupation.Duringthewar,China,alongwith the UK, the US andthe Soviet Union,
werereferred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"and wererecognizedasthe Allied"Big Four" in
the DeclarationbyUnitedNations.
Along with the other threegreat powers, Chinawasone of the four majorAllies of World War II,
andwas later consideredoneofthe primaryvictors inthe war. After the surrenderof Japanin
1945,Taiwan,includingthePescadores,wasreturnedto Chinesecontrol.Chinaemerged
victoriousbut war-ravagedand financiallydrained.Thecontinueddistrustbetweenthe
KuomintangandtheCommunistsledtothe resumptionofcivil war. Constitutionalrulewas
establishedin1947,but becauseof the ongoingunrest,manyprovisionsof the ROC
constitutionwerenever implementedinmainlandChina.
People's Republic of China (1949-present)
MajorcombatintheChineseCivil War endedin 1949withthe CommunistPartyin controlof mostof mainlandChina,andthe
Kuomintang retreatingoffshore,reducingtheROC'sterritory to only Taiwan,Hainan,andtheirsurroundingislands.On21September
1949,CommunistPartyChairman

2. MaoZedongproclaimedtheestablishmentofthe People'sRepublic ofChina.In 1950, the People'sLiberation
Army succeededincapturingHainanfrom theROCandincorporatingTibet.
Theregimeconsolidateditspopularityamongthepeasantsthrough landreform,whichsawbetween1 and2
millionlandlordsexecuted.Underits leadership,Chinadevelopedanindependentindustrialsystem andits own
nuclearweapons.TheChinesepopulationalmostdoubledfrom around550milliontoover 900 million.
However, the Great LeapForward,a large-scaleeconomic andsocialreform project,resultedinan estimated45
milliondeathsbetween1958and1961,mostlyfrom starvation. In 1966,Maoandhis allieslaunchedtheCultural
Revolution, sparkingadecadeof politicalrecriminationandsocialupheavalwhichlasteduntilMao'sdeathin1976. In October1971,
the PRC replacedtheRepublic ofChinainthe UnitedNations,and took its seat as a permanentmemberofthe SecurityCouncil.
After Mao'sdeath, DengXiaopingtookpowerin 1978,and institutedsignificanteconomic
reforms.TheCommunistPartyloosenedgovernmentalcontrolovercitizens' personallives,
andthe communesweregraduallydisbandedinfavor of private landleases.Thismarked
China'stransitionfrom a plannedeconomytoa mixedeconomywithan increasinglyopen-
marketenvironment.Chinaadoptedits currentconstitutionon4 December1982.
JiangZemin,LiPengand ZhuRongjiledthe nationin the 1990s.Undertheir administration,
China'seconomicperformancepulledanestimated150millionpeasantsoutof poverty and
sustainedan averageannualgross domestic productgrowthrateof 11.2%.
Thecountryformallyjoinedthe World TradeOrganizationin2001,and
maintaineditshighrate of economicgrowthunderHuJintaoandWen
Jiabao'sleadershipinthe 2000s.However, rapid growthalsoseverely
impacted thecountry'sresourcesandenvironment,andcausedmajorsocial
displacement.Livingstandardscontinuedtoimproverapidlydespite the late-
2000srecession,butcentralizedpoliticalcontrolremainedtight.
Preparationsfor a decadalCommunistPartyleadershipchangein2012weremarkedby factional
disputesand political scandals.DuringChina's18thNationalCommunistPartyCongressin
November2012,Hu Jintaowas replacedasGeneralSecretaryof the CommunistPartyby Xi
Jinping.
UnderXi, the Chinesegovernmentbeganlarge-scaleeffortsto reform its economy,whichhas
suffered from structuralinstabilitiesandslowinggrowth.TheXi-LiAdministrationalsoannounced
majorreformsto the one-childpolicyandprisonsystem.
Chinese Literature (Modern Period)
Republican Era (1912-1937)
Theliterarysceneinthe first few years before the collapseofthe Qingin1911was
dominatedbypopularlove stories, somewrittenin the classical languageandsomein
the vernacular.Thisentertainmentfictionwouldlaterbelabeled"MandarinDucksand
Butterfly"fictionbyNewCulturalists, whodespisedits lackof socialengagement.
In the courseof the New CultureMovement (1917-23),thevernacularlanguagelargely
displacedtheclassical inallareasof literatureand writing.Literary reformersHu Shih
(1891-1962)and Chen Duxiu (1880-1942)declaredtheclassical language"dead"and
promotedthevibrant vernacularinits stead. Hu Shi oncesaid,"A deadlanguagecan
never producealiving literature." In terms of literary practice,Lu Xun (1881-1936)isusuallysaid to be the first majorstylist in the new
vernacularprosethat Hu Shi andChenDuxiuwere promoting.
Thoughoftensaidto be less successfulthantheircounterpartsinfictionwriting, poets alsoexperimentedwiththevernacularinnew
poetic forms,suchas free verse andthe sonnet. Given that there was no traditionof writingpoetry in the vernacular,these experiments
weremoreradicalthanthose infictionwritingand alsoless easilyacceptedbythe readingpublic.Modernpoetryflourishedespecially
in the 1930s,in the handsof poetslike Zhu Xiang,Dai Wangshu,Li Jinfa,Wen Yiduo ,andGeXiao.

3. MayFourthradicalism,combinedwithchangesintheeducationsystem,madepossible theemergenceofalargegroup of women
writers. While therehad beenwomenwritersinthe lateimperialperiodandthelate Qing,they hadbeen few innumber.These writers
generallytackleddomestic issues,suchasrelationsbetweenthe sexes, family, andfriendship,but they were revolutionaryin giving
directexpressionto femalesubjectivity. DingLing'sstory MissSophia'sDiaryexposesthe thoughtsandfeelingsof its femalediaristin
alltheir complexity.
The1920sand1930ssaw the emergenceofspokendrama.Mostoutstandingamongplaywrightsof the dayare Ouyang Yuqian,
Hong Shen,Tian Han,and Cao Yu .Morepopularthanthis Western-style drama,however, wasPeking opera,raisedtonewartistic
heightsby the likes of MeiLanfang.
In the late 1920sand 1930s,literary journalsandsocietiesespousingvariousartistic theoriesproliferated.Amongthe majorwritersof
the periodwere:
 Guo Moruo (1892-1978),apoet, historian,essayist, and critic.
 Mao Dun (1896-1981),thefirst of the novelists to emergefrom the Leagueof Left-Wing Writers andone whosework reflected
the revolutionarystruggleand disillusionmentof the late1920s.
 Lao She (1899-1966)-satirist andnovelist
 Ba Jin (1904-2005),anovelist whosework was a trilogythat depictedthestruggleof modernyouth againstthe ageold
dominanceofthe Confucianfamilysystem.
TheLeagueofLeft-Wing Writers foundedin1930includedLuXunamongitsleadership.By1932it hadadoptedthe Soviet doctrine
ofsocialistrealism;thatis, the insistencethatart must concentrateoncontemporaryevents in a realistic way, exposingthe illsof
nonsocialistsocietyandpromotingagloriousfuture undercommunism.
Otherstyles of literaturewere at oddswith the highly-politicalliteraturebeingpromotedbythe League.The"New Sensationists",a
groupof writersbasedin Shanghaiwhowereinfluenced,tovarying degrees,by Western andJapanesemodernismwrotefictionthat
was moreconcernedwiththeunconsciousandwithaestheticsthanwithpoliticsorsocialproblems.Mostimportantamongthese
writers wereMuShiying, Liu Na'ou, andShi Zhecun.Otherwriters,includingShenCongwenand FeiMing,balkedatthe utilitarianrole
for literature by writinglyrical,almostnostalgic,depictionsofthe countryside.Lin Yutang, whohadstudied at Harvard and Leipzig,
introducedtheconceptofyoumo (humor),whichheusedin trenchantcriticismofChina'spoliticalandcultural situationbeforeleaving
for the United States.
The war years (1937-1949)
Duringthe Sino-JapaneseWar(1937-45),mostwriters fled to the interior, wherethey contributedtothe war effort by writingpatriotic
literatureunderthe bannerof the ZhonghuaQuanguoWenyijieKangdi Xiehui (All-ChinaAnti-JapaneseFederation ofWritersand
Artists), foundedin1938and directedbyLao She. All genreswere represented,includingreportage(baogaowenxue),anenormously
influentialtype of writingthat was a naturaloutgrowthof the federation'scallfor writers to go to the countrysideandthe front lines.
Literarymagazineswerefilled withshort, easilyproducedandadaptableplays,topicalpatriotic verse,and war-zone dispatches.
Amongthe majorwriterswhocontinuedtoproduceworkof high qualityduringthis periodwereBa Jin, Cao Yu, and MaoDun.The
short stories andnovels that Sha Dingwrotein the late 1930sand mid-1940salsoreceivedacclaimfrom fellowwriters.
DingLing's fictionalexplorationsofthefemalepsycheand the social conditionofwomenhadcaughtthepublic'simaginationinthe
1920s,and in the late1930s sheestablishedherselfas the majorliteraryfigurein the communiststrongholdofYan'an.
Maoist Era (1949-1976)
After comingtopowerin1949, the Communists graduallynationalizedthepublishingindustry,centralizedthe book
distributionsystem, and broughtwriters underinstitutionalcontrolthroughtheWriters Union.A system of strict
censorshipwasimplemented.
Socialistrealism becametheuniform style, and manySoviet works were translated.Party culturalleaderssuchas
ZhouYang used Mao'scallto have literature"serve the people"to mountattacks on"petty bourgeoisidealism"" and
"humanitarianism."
At the timeof the GreatLeap Forward (1957-59),thegovernmentincreaseditsinsistenceontheuse of socialistrealism and
combinedwithit so-calledrevolutionaryrealism andrevolutionaryromanticism.
Despitethe literary controlandstricturesto limitsubjectsto contemporaryChinaandthe gloriesof the revolution, writers produced
widelyreadnovels of energyandcommitment.Examplesofthis new socialistliteratureinclude:
1. TheBuilderbyLiu Qing
2. TheSong ofYouth byYang Mo
3. Tracksin theSnowyForestbyQu Bo
4. Keep the Red Flag FlyingbyLiangBin
5. TheRed Sun by Wu Qiang
6. Red Crag by Luo Guangbin
7.Yang Yiyan

4. Duringthe Cultural Revolution (1966-1976),Mao'swife,Jiang Qing ledthecampaignagainst"feudal"and"bourgeois"culture.The
onlystage productionsallowedwereher"EightModelOperas,"whichcombinedtraditional andwesternforms,whilegreatfanfarewas
given to politicallyorthodoxfilmsandheroic novels, suchas those by HaoRan. Theperiodhaslongbeenregardedasa cultural
wasteland,but somenowsuggest that the leadingworkshave an energywhichisstill of interest.
Opening and Reform (1978-1989)
Muchof the literatureinwhat wouldbe calledthe"newera" discussedtheseriousabusesof powerthat had taken placeatboth the
nationalandthe locallevelsduringthe CulturalRevolution.Thewritersdecriedthewaste of timeand talent duringthat decadeand
bemoanedabusesthathadheldChinaback.Thisliterature,often called"scarliterature,"or "the literatureof the wounded,"discussed
the experiencesofsent-downyouth with great thoughnot completefranknessandconveyeddisquietingviewsof the party andthe
politicalsystem.
Duringthis period,the numberof literarymagazinesrosesharply, andmanyfrom before the CulturalRevolutionwererevived.
Poetry also changedinitsform andcontent.Four"mistypoets,"Bei Dao, Gu Cheng,Duo Duo and Yang Lian expressed
themselvesin deliberatelyobscureverse whichreflectedsubjectiverealism.Therewasaspecialinterestin foreignworks. Recent
foreignliteraturewas translated, often withoutcarefullyconsideringitsinterestfor the Chinesereader.Literarymagazinesspecializing
in translationsof foreignshort stories becameverypopular,especiallyamongtheyoung.
At the sametime,writers remainedfreerto writein unconventionalstyles andto treat sensitive subjectmatter.A spiritof literary
experimentationflourished inthesecondhalfof the 1980s.Fictionwriterssuchas Wang Meng,Zhang Xinxin,andZong Pu and
dramatistssuchas Gao Xingjian experimentedwithmodernistlanguageandnarrativemodes.
Another group of writers collectivelysaidto constitutethe "Roots"movementincluding Han Shaogong,Mo Yan,Ah Cheng andJia
Pingwasoughtto reconnectliteratureandculturetoChinesetraditions,from whicha centuryof modernizationandculturalandpolitical
iconoclasm hadseveredthem.
Post Tiananmen and Present (1989-Present)
AccordingtoMartinWoesler, trends incontemporaryChineseliteratureinclude:
1. "Cultliterature" with Guo Jingming's"Crymeasad river"
2. "Vagabond literature" with Xu Zechen's"Running Through Beijing"and
Liu Zhenyun's"Thepickpockets"
3. "Underground literature" with Mian Mian's"PandaSex"
4 "Longing forsomething literature"divided in historicizingliteraturewith
Yu Dan's"Confuciusin yourheart",Yi Zhongtian in Tibetanliteratureand
with Alai,literatureofthemegacities.
5. "Women'sliterature" with Bi Shumin's"Women'sboxing"
6. "Masternarratives" bynarratorslikeMo Yan with "Lifeand Death areWearing meout".
Chineselanguageliteraturealso flourishedoutsidethecountryin South East Asia, the UnitedStates, andEurope.Chinais the largest
publisherof books,magazinesandnewspapersinthe world. In book publishingalone,some128,800newtitles
of books werepublishedin2005,accordingtotheGeneralAdministrationof Press andPublication.
Therearemorethan600literary journalsacrossthecountry. Living in Francebutcontinuingtowriteprimarilyin
Chinese,Gao Xingjian becamethefirstChinesewriterto receivetheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein 2000.
In 2012, Mo Yan also received theNobel Prizein Literature.In2015, children's
authorCao Wenxuan wasawarded theHansChristianAndersen Award,thefirst
Chineseauthorto win the top internationalchildren'sbookprize(althoughseveral Chineseauthorshad
previously beennominated).

5. Sample Literary Piece of the Period
Lu Xun,formerlyromanizedLu Hsün,was the pen nameofZhouShuren (25 September
1881– 19 October1936),a leadingfigureof modernChineseliterature.Writingin
VernacularChineseaswellas ClassicalChinese,LuXunwas a short story writer, editor,
translator, literarycritic,essayist, poet, anddesigner.In the 1930she becamethetitular
headof the LeagueofLeft-Wing Writers inShanghai.
He hasbeen considered asChina'sgreatestmodernwriterfor mostof the 20th century. In
fact, scholarsplacehim asthefather of modernChineseliterature. Manyof the other authorsof fictionalworksof socialcriticism
popularduringthe1920sand 1930shave been at least partiallydiscreditedorcriticizedduringthevariouspoliticalmovementsin
Chinasince1949,but LuXun's reputationhasremainedconsistentlydistinguished.MaoZedong(1893-1976)calledhim "commander
of China'sculturalrevolution."
MEDICINE
by Lu Xun
It was autumn,inthe smallhoursof the morning.Themoonhadgonedown,butthe sunhad not yet risen, andthe sky appeared a
sheet of darklingblue.Apart from night-prowlers,allwasasleep.OldChuansuddenlysat up inbed. He strucka matchandlit the
grease-coveredoillamp,whichshedaghostlylight over the two roomsof the tea-house.
"Are you goingnow, dad?"queriedanold woman'svoice.And from the smallinnerroom afit of coughingwasheard.
"H'm."
OldChuanlistenedas hefastened his clothes,thenstretchingout his handsaid, "Let's have it."
After somefumblingunderthepillowhiswifeproducedapacketof silver dollarswhichshehandedover. OldChuanpocketedit
nervously, patted his pockettwice,thenlightinga paperlanternand blowingoutthe lampwentinto the innerroom.A rustling was
heard,and then morecoughing.Whenallwas quietagain,Old Chuancalledsoftly: "Son! . . Don't you get up! . . . Your motherwillsee
to the shop."
Receivingnoanswer,OldChuanassumedhisson mustbe soundasleepagain;so he went out into the street. In the darknessnothing
couldbeseenbut the grey roadway. Thelanternlightfell onhis pacingfeet. Hereand therehe cameacrossdogs,but noneof them
barked.It wasmuchcolderthanindoors,yet Old Chuan'sspiritsrose, as if he hadgrownsuddenlyyounger andpossessedsome
miraculouslife-givingpower.Helengthenedhisstride. And the road becameincreasinglyclear,thesky increasinglybright.
Absorbed in hiswalking,OldChuanwas startled whenhesaw distinctlythe cross-roadaheadofhim.He walkedbackafew stepsto
stand underthe eaves of a shop, infront of its closeddoor.After sometimehe beganto feel chilly.
"Uh, an oldchap."
"Seemsrather cheerful.. . ."
OldChuanstarted againand, openinghiseyes, sawseveral menpassing.Oneof them even turned backto lookat him,andalthough
he couldnotsee him clearly,the man'seyes shonewith a lustfullight, like a famishedperson'sat the sight of food. Lookingat his
lantern,Old Chuansawit had goneout. He patted his pocket—thehardpacketwasstill there. Thenhelookedroundandsaw many
strangepeople,in twos and threes, wanderingaboutlikelostsouls. However, when hegazed steadily at them,he couldnotsee
anything elsestrange aboutthem.
Presently hesaw somesoldiersstrollingaround.Thelargewhitecirclesontheiruniforms,both infront andbehind,were cleareven at
a distance;andas they drew nearer,he sawthe darkred bordertoo. Thenextsecond,witha tramplingoffeet, a crowdrushedpast.
Thereuponthesmallgroupswhichhadarrivedearliersuddenlyconvergedandsurgedforward. Just before the cross-road,they came
to a suddenstop and groupedthemselvesina semi-circle.
OldChuanlookedinthat directiontoo,but couldonlyseepeople'sbacks.Craningtheir necksasfar as they wouldgo, they lookedlike
so manyducksheldandlifted by someinvisiblehand.For a momentallwasstill; then a soundwasheard, anda stir swept throughthe
on-lookers.Therewasarumbleas they pushedback,sweepingpastOldChuanandnearlyknockinghim down.
"Hey! Give me the cash,andI'll give you the goods!" A mancladentirelyin blackstoodbefore him,hiseyes like daggers,makingOld
Chuanshrinkto halfhis normalsize. Thismanthrust onehugeextendedhandtowards him,whileinthe other he helda rollof steamed
bread,from whichcrimsondropsweredrippingtothe ground.

6. HurriedlyOld Chuanfumbledforhis dollars,andtremblinghewasabout to handthem over, but hedared not take the object. Theother
grewimpatientandshouted: "What are you afraidof? Why not take it?" When OldChuanstill hesitated,the manin blacksnatchedhis
lanternand tore off its papershadeto wrap up the roll.Thispackagehethrustinto OldChuan'shand, at the sametimeseizing the
silver and giving it a cursoryfeel. Thenheturnedaway, muttering,"Oldfool. . . ."
"Whose sicknessis this for?" OldChuanseemedtohear someoneask;but he madenoreply. His wholemindwasonthe package,
whichhecarriedascarefullyas if it werethe sole heirto anancienthouse.Nothingelsematterednow. He wasabout to transplantthis
newlife to hisown home,andreapmuchhappiness.Thesunhadrisen,lightingupthe broadhighwaybeforehim,whichledstraight
home,andthe worn tabletbehindhim at the cross-roadwithits faded goldinscription:"AncientPavilion."
II
When OldChuanreachedhome,theshophadbeencleaned,andthe rowsof tea-tablesshonebrightly; but nocustomershadarrived.
Onlyhis son sat eatingat a tableby the wall. Beadsof sweat stood out on hisforehead, hislinedjacketclungtohis spine, andhis
shoulderbladesstuckout so sharply, an inverted V seemedstampedthere.At this sight, OldChuan's brow,whichhadbeenclear,
contractedagain.Hiswifehurriedin from the kitchen,with expectanteyes anda tremor to her lips:
"Get it?"
"Yes."
Theywent togetherinto the kitchen,andconferredfor a time.Thentheold womanwentout, to return shortly with a driedlotus leaf
whichshespreadon the table. OldChuanunwrappedthecrimson-stainedrollfrom thelanternpaperandtransferred it to the lotusleaf.
Little Chuanhadfinishedhis meal,buthis motherexclaimedhastily:
"Sit still, Little Chuan!Don't comeoverhere."
Mendingthefire inthe stove, OldChuanput the greenpackageandthered and whitelanternpaperinto the stove together. A red-
blackflameflaredup, anda strange odourpermeatedtheshop.
"Smellsgood!What areyou eating?"Thehunchbackhadarrived. Hewas one of those whospendall theirtime intea-shops, the first to
comeinthe morningandthelast to leave. Nowhe hadjust stumbledto a cornertablefacingthestreet, and sat down. But no one
answeredhisquestion.
"Puffed ricegruel?"
Still noreply. OldChuanhurriedout to brew tea for him.
"Comehere,Little Chuan!" Hismothercalledhim intothe innerroom,set a stool in the middle,andsat the childdown.Then,bringing
him a roundblackobjectona plate,she said gently:
"Eat it up . . . then you'll be better."
Little Chuanpickedupthe blackobjectandlookedatit. Hehad the oddestfeeling, as if he wereholding hisownlife in his hands.
Presently hesplit it carefullyopen.From withinthe charredcrustajet of whitevapour escaped,thenscattered,leaving onlytwo halves
of a steamedwhiteflour roll. Soonit wasall eaten, the flavour completelyforgotten,only the emptyplatebeingleft. His father and
motherwerestandingoneon eachsideof him, theireyes apparentlypouringsomethingintohim andatthe sametimeextracting
something.Hissmallheartbeganto beat faster, and, puttinghis handsto his chest, hebeganto coughagain.
"Have a sleep;then you'll be allright," saidhis mother.
Obediently,Little Chuancoughedhimselftosleep. Thewomanwaitedtillhisbreathingwasregular,then coveredhim lightly witha
muchpatchedquilt.
III
Theshopwascrowded,andOldChuanwasbusy, carryinga bigcopperkettleto maketea for onecustomerafter another.Therewere
dark circlesunderhiseyes.
"Aren't you well, OldChuan?. . . What's wrongwith you?" askedone greybeard.
"Nothing."
"Nothing?. . . No, I supposefrom your smile,therecouldn'tbe. . ." the oldmancorrectedhimself.

7. "It's just that OldChuan'sbusy," saidthe hunchback."If his son. . . ." But beforehe couldfinish,a heavy-jowled manburst in. Over his
shouldershehad a darkbrown shirt, unbuttonedandfastened carelesslybya broad darkbrowngirdleat hiswaist. As soonas he
entered, heshoutedto OldChuan:
"Has he eatenit? Any better? Luck'swith you, OldChuan.What luck! If not for my hearingof thingsso quickly. . . ."
Holdingthekettle in onehand, the other straight by hisside in anattitude of respect, OldChuanlistenedwitha smile.In fact, all
presentwere listeningrespectfully.Theoldwoman,darkcirclesunderhereyes too, cameoutsmilingwitha bowlcontainingtea-leaves
andan addedolive, over whichOldChuanpouredboilingwaterforthe newcomer.
"Thisisa guaranteedcure!Not likeother things!" declaredtheheavy-jowledman."Just think, broughtback warm,and eatenwarm!"
"Yes indeed,we couldn'thave manageditwithoutUncleKang'shelp." Theoldwomanthankedhim verywarmly.
"A guaranteedcure!Eatenwarm likethis. A rolldippedinhumanbloodlikethis cancureanyconsumption!"
Theoldwomanseemedalittledisconcertedbythe word "consumption,"andturneda shadepaler; however, she forcedasmileagain
at onceandfound somepretext to leave. Meanwhilethemaninbrownwas indiscreetenoughtogoon talkingat the top of his voice
untilthe childinthe innerroom was wokenand started coughing.
"So you've had a greatstroke of luckfor your LittleChuan! Of coursehissicknesswillbecuredcompletely.No wonderOldChuan
keepssmiling."As he spoke, the greybeardwalkedup to the manin brown,and loweredhisvoiceto ask:
"Mr. Kang, I heard the criminalexecutedtodaycamefrom theHsiafamily. Who was it? And why washe executed?"
"Who? Son of Widow Hsia,of course!Young rascal!"
Seeinghowthey all hungon hiswords, Mr. Kang's spiritsrose even higher.Hisjowlsquivered, and hemadehis voiceas loudas he
could.
"Theroguedidn'twant to live, simplydidn'twant to! Therewasnothinginit for methis time.Even the clothesstrippedfrom him were
taken by Red-eye, the jailer.Our OldChuanwasluckiest,andafter him ThirdUncleHsia.Hepocketedthewholereward—twenty-five
taels of bright silver—anddidn't have to spenda cent!"
Little Chuanwalkedslowlyout of the innerroom,his handsto his chest, coughingrepeatedly.Hewent to the kitchen,filleda bowlwith
coldrice,addedhotwater to it, and sittingdown started to eat. Hismother,hovering over him,askedsoftly:
"Do you feelbetter, son?Still as hungryas ever?"
"A guaranteedcure!"Kangglancedatthe child,thenturnedbackto address the company."ThirdUncleHsiaisreallysmart. If he
hadn't informed,even hisfamilywouldhave been executed,andtheirproperty confiscated.Butinstead?Silver! Thatyoung roguewas
a realscoundrel!Heeven tried to incitethejailerto revolt!"
"No! Theideaof it!" A manin histwenties, sitting in the backrow, expressedindignation.
"You know, Red-eye wentto soundhim out, but he started chattingwithhim.He saidthe greatChingempirebelongstous. Just think:
is that kind of talk rational?Red-eye knewhe hadonly anold motherat home,but hadnever imaginedhewasso poor. He couldn't
squeeze anything out of him;he was alreadygoodandangry, andthen the young fool would'scratchthetiger's head,' so he gave him
a coupleofslaps."
"Red-eye is a goodboxer. Thoseslapsmusthave hurt!" Thehunchbackinthecornerby the wallexulted.
"Therotter was not afraidof beingbeaten. Heeven saidhow sorry he was."
"Nothingto be sorry about inbeatinga wretchlike that," saidGreybeard.
Kanglookedat him superciliouslyandsaiddisdainfully:"You misunderstood.Thewayhesaid it, he was sorry for Red-eye."
His listeners'eyes took on a glazed look,and no onespoke. Little Chuanhadfinishedhisriceandwas perspiringprofusely, his head
steaming.
"Sorry for Red-eye—crazy! Hemust have beencrazy!" said Greybeard,as if suddenlyhe sawlight.
"He musthave beencrazy!" echoedthemaninhis twenties.
Oncemorethecustomersbegantoshowanimation,andconversationwasresumed.Undercoverof the noise,the childwasseized by
a paroxysm of coughing.Kangwentupto him,clappedhim ontheshoulder,andsaid:

8. "A guaranteedcure!Don'tcoughlikethat, Little Chuan!A guaranteedcure!"
"Crazy!" agreedthe hunchback,noddinghishead.
IV
Originally,the landadjacenttothe city walloutsidethe West Gatehad beenpublic land.Thezigzagpath runningacrossit, troddenout
by passers-byseekinga short cut, hadbecomeanaturalboundaryline. Left of the pathwere buriedexecutedcriminalsorthosewho
haddied of neglectinprison.Right of the path werepaupers'graves. Theserriedranksof grave moundsonboth sideslookedlikethe
rollslaidout for a richman'sbirthday.
TheChingMingFestivalthat year was unusuallycold.Willowswere onlyjust beginningtoput forth shoots no largerthan grains.
Shortly after daybreak, OldChuan's wifebrought four dishesanda bowlof riceto set before a newgrave inthe right section,and
wailedbeforeit. Whenshe had burnedpapermoneyshe sat on the groundina stupor as if waitingfor something;butfor what, she
herselfdid not know. A breeze sprangup and stirredher short hair, whichwascertainlywhiterthan the previous year.
Another womancamedownthepath, grey-hairedandin rags. Carrying an old,round, red-lacqueredbasketwitha string of paper
moneyhangingfrom it, she walkedhaltingly.When she sawOldChuan's wifesitting on the groundwatchingher,shehesitated, anda
flush of shamespreadover herpaleface. However, she summonedupcouragetocrossover to a grave in the left section.whereshe
set down herbasket.
Thatgrave was directlyoppositeLittle Chuan's,separatedonlyby the path. As OldChuan'swife watchedtheother womanset Outfour
dishesof foodand a bowlof rice,then stand up to wailandburn papermoney, she thought:"It mustbe her sonin that grave too." The
olderwomantooka few aimlesssteps andstared vacantlyaround, thensuddenlyshe beganto trembleandstaggerbackwards,as
thoughgiddy.
Fearingsorrowmightsendher out of her mind,OldChuan'swifegot upand steppedacrossthe path, to say quietly: "Don't grieve, let's
go home."
Theothernodded,but she wasstill staringfixedly, and shemuttered: "Look! What's that?"
Lookingwhereshepointed, OldChuan'swifesaw that the grave in front had not yet beenovergrown with grass. Uglypatchesof soil
still showed.But whenshe lookedcarefully,she was surprisedto see at the top of the moundawreath of red andwhite flowers.
Both of them sufferedfrom failingeyesight, yet they couldseethesered andwhite flowersclearly. Therewerenotmany, but they were
placedina circle;andalthoughnotvery fresh, wereneatly set out. LittleChuan'smotherlookedroundand foundher ownson's grave,
likemost of the rest, dotted with onlya few little, paleflowers shiveringin the cold.Suddenlyshe had a senseof futility andstopped
feelingcuriousaboutthewreath.
In the meantimetheoldwomanhadgoneup to the grave to lookmoreclosely."Theyhave no roots," shesaid to herself. "They can't
have grown here.Who couldhave beenhere? Childrendon'tcomehereto play, andnoneof ourrelatives ever come.What couldhave
happened?"Shepuzzled over it, until suddenlyher tears beganto fall, andshe criedaloud:
"Son, they all wrongedyou, and you donot forget. Is your grief still so great that today you workedthis wonderto let meknow?"
She lookedallaround,but couldseeonlya crowperchedona leaflessbough."I know," she continued."Theymurderedyou.But a day
of reckoningwillcome,Heavenwillsee to it. Closeyour eyes in peace.. . . If you are reallyhere, andcanhear me,makethat crowfly
on to your grave as a sign."
Thebreezehad longsincedropped,andthe dry grassstood stiff and straightas copperwires.A faint, tremuloussoundvibratedin the
air, then fadedand diedaway. All aroundwas deathlystill. Theystood in the dry grass, lookingupat the crow;andthe crow,on the
rigidboughof the tree, its headdrawnin, perchedimmobileasiron.
Timepassed.Morepeople,youngand old,cameto visit the graves.
OldChuan'swife felt somehowasif a loadhadbeenlifted from her mindand,wantingto leave, she urgedthe other:
"Let's go."
Theoldwomansighed,andlistlesslypickedupthe riceanddishes. After a moment'shesitationshestarted off slowly, still mutteringto
herself:
"What doesit mean?"
Theyhad not gonethirty paceswhenthey hearda loudcawbehindthem.Startled, they lookedroundandsaw the crowstretchits
wings,braceitself to take off, thenfly likean arrowtowards the far horizon.