Literature Review

Running head: FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT RETENTION AND DEPARTURE 1
Factors Influencing Student Retention and Departure
Mathew K. Leach
Michael B. Mahannah
Kaitlin A. VanRoosendaal
Colorado Mesa University

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT RETENTION AND DEPARTURE 2
Table of Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................................3
Institutional Practices that Positively Affect Student Retention .............................................................4
Sense of Belonging..........................................................................................................................4
Relationships..................................................................................................................................4
What Accounts for Student Departure.................................................................................................4
Voluntary Departure.......................................................................................................................4
Individual Characteristics Related to Student Departure/Retention.......................................................6
Academic Ability, Race, or Gender...................................................................................................6
Family Background Characteristics Role in Retention............................................................................7
Parental Education..........................................................................................................................7
Socioeconomic Factors....................................................................................................................8
External Factors..................................................................................................................................9
A weak economy, doubtful job outlook............................................................................................9
Academic vs. Social Support Related to Student Retention..................................................................10
Academic Support.........................................................................................................................10
Social Support...............................................................................................................................11
Which degrees or programs have the highest retention rates?............................................................11
Undergraduate Degrees................................................................................................................11
Graduate Degrees.........................................................................................................................12
References.......................................................................................................................................13

Abstract
Multiple factorsinfluence college retentionanddeparture.These factorsrange fromindividual
characteristicstoexternal factors,to familybackgroundtoinstitutional valuesandpracticesto the
effectivenessof academicandsocial support.Certaindegreessimplyjustfrankly have higherretention
rates. The purpose of thisliterature reviewistounravel the theoriesandthe immense researchdone
concerningcollege retentionanddeparture.

Institutional Practices that Positively Affect Student Retention
Sense of Belonging
According to O’Keeffe (2013), “developing a ‘sense of belonging’ is critical to the
success of college students” (p. 607). Several positive experiences can keep a student enrolled in
higher education. Some of these experiences can make a student feel that he or she belongs and
is a part of something at that college. This can come in the form of being on a sports team, being
part of a club, or even just having a group of colleagues that attend school events together.
Institutions can encourage these relationships further by supporting clubs financially and offering
incentives for students to attend club events.
Relationships
Relationships are a reason for students to stay enrolled. A relationship between the
student and a staff member can have a positive effect on keeping students enrolled rather than
leaving before they finish their degrees (O’Keeffe, 2013). These relationships may have an
impact on students being more involved and motivated to finish out their degrees. A counselor
can also be a good relationship for students to have to keep them on track. “Counseling of
students has been directly related to improved student retention” (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 610). The
findings of O’Keeffe’s (2013) article indicate that higher education institutions should take part
in these relationships to keep more students enrolled.
What Accounts for Student Departure
Voluntary Departure
Students depart voluntarily from institutions for a number of reasons, and the theories
behind those reasons are vast. According to stateuniversity.com (2014, para. 4),
“Studentsoften quitschooldueto a financialshortfallor a family crisis and
return a year later. Otherstudentsmightstartschool,drop outto workor to raise a
family,and return years,or even decadeslater. Someonedefined asa dropoutcould

becomeredefined as a stopoutatany time (a returning student).Otherstudents
becomeslowdowns, going fromfull-timeattendanceto taking justa few courses.”
This information gives inclination that students often depart from school, but end up
returning to graduate. Often times, this may mean returning at a different university. In fact, one
in nine students transferred to a different university for the start of their sophomore year
(Blessing, 2014). There are still others though that went into college not seeking a degree, but are
rather looking to take a few classes for work purposes. “A student might enter a college with the
intention of taking three accounting courses to upgrade his or her status at work”
(Stateuniversity.com, 2014, para. 5). These students are certainly not dropouts, yet they are
counted as such by an institution.
Vincent Tinto’s initial model of departure believes that social and academic integration
are at the core of student retention. “Tinto borrowed Spady's use of Durkheim's two postulates to
identify the concepts of academic and social integration. Academic integration was thought to be
the result of sharing academic values, and social integration was viewed as the result of
developing friendships with other students and faculty members. In Tinto's model, a student who
does not achieve some level of academic or social integration is likely to leave school”
(stateuniversity.com, 2014, para. 16). So to combat with this institutions are offering more and
more clubs and student organizations.
Tinto's model that was created in 1993 is similar in structure to his earlier ones, but it
claims that student departure is related to the failure to negotiate with the rites of passage.
“According to this theory, students would remain enrolled if they separated themselves from
their family and high school friends, engaged in processes by which they identified with and took
on the values of other students and faculty” (stateuniversity.com, 2014, para. 17). Therefore, if a
student remained in close touch to his or her high school friends, and possibly got home sick, he

or she would likely return home and voluntarily depart from his or her initial institution.
Furthermore, “Both experiences before entering college and academic abilities are
important; the way students interact in the social and academic environment once at college are
important, as are factors from outside of the institution, particularly the cost of attending the
college; and the attitudes a student forms about the institution and about his or her role of being a
student at a particular institution (Do I fit in? Am I developing? Am I validated?) are also
important aspects of a student's decision to remain enrolled” (stateuniversity.com, 2014, para.
22).
Human behavior is very complex, and this article summary just barely scratches the
surface on why college students may depart voluntarily and what accounts for student departure.
Individual Characteristics Related to Student Departure/Retention
Academic Ability, Race, or Gender
Taking a look at individual characteristics gives incredible insight as to whether or not a
student will remain in college. Race, academic ability, and gender all influence a student’s fate.
The numbers are stacked against African Americans and Hispanics, “In 2013, about 40
percent of whites between the ages of 25 and 29 had a bachelor’s degree or more, compared to
about 20 percent of blacks, 15 percent of Hispanics and 58 percent of Asians, according to data
from the Current Population Survey” (Casselman, 2014, para. #4).
While there are people who believe that income plays a stronger role in student
departure, “the fact that racial minorities have lower graduation rates than low-income students
suggests that, at a minimum, income can’t fully explain the racial gap in graduation” and there is
clearly more to the story that needs to be further researched (Casselman, 2014, para. #6).
Students with academic disabilities are less likely to remain in college. Lisa Weyandt,
and George DuPaul (2008) take a closer look at college students with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder which is characterized by an inability to sustain attention, impulsivity, and
hyperactivity, affects 3-7% of the school aged population and males are more commonly
diagnosed with the disorder than females. “College students with ADHD seem to be at risk for
lower achievement scores, poor academic coping skills in general but especially in writing”
(Weyandt & DuPaul, 2008, p. 313).
Gender is another influence that cannot be ignored. In 2007, 5,483,000 men aged
between 25 to 29 years had at least some college enrollment experience, and of that 2,743,000
had completed a bachelor’s degree or more. That same year, 6,443,000 females had at least some
college enrollment experience, of those 3,380,000 had completed a bachelor’s degree. Between
1992 and 2007, the bachelor’s degree completion rate for females increased by four percentage
points compared to two percentage points for males (postsecondary.org, 1999, p. 8).
Family Background Characteristics Role in Retention
Family background characteristics play a huge role in college student retention.
According to stateuniversity.com (2014), “A typical retained student will enroll in college
directly after high school (at age eighteen or nineteen); … will come from a white or Asian
family with educated parents with relatively high incomes (high socioeconomic status).” These
attributes come directly from family background and parental influence.
Parental Education
A factor that has a role in the retention of students is how much postsecondary education
their parents have. A report by the U.S. Department of Education (2001) states that, “High
school graduates whose parents did not go to college are less likely than those whose parents
earned bachelor’s or advanced degrees to be academically prepared for admission to a 4-year
college” (U.S. Department of Education, 2001, p. 14).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2001), among 1992 high school

graduates, those whose parents had no higher education were 43% likely to attend college.
While those whose parents has bachelor’s degrees or higher attended 74% of the time. This
difference is also reflected in how well the graduates are academically prepared to attend college.
Of the parents that had no postsecondary education, the graduate, nearly half the time, was
marginally or failed to qualify for admission. For those graduate whose parents had a bachelor’s
degree or higher, more than 50% of the time, they were very or highly qualified. (U.S.
Department of Education, 2001).
The parental education factors are also varied by gender. Male graduates attended at a
rate of 47 to 89%, depending on parental education level. Female graduates varied from 56 to
94% depending on the parents’ education level. (Parental Educational Attainment and Higher
Educational Opportunity, 1999).
Socioeconomic Factors
In order to help high school students academically prepare for college, the College Board
offered free or reduced fee AP exams for those student who qualify. In order to qualify the
students had to be on a free or reduced lunch program.
To investigate whether advanced academics in high school had effect on postsecondary
education, the College Board conducted study in 2011. This study reported the results of a
sample group comparison between two groups of students. The comparison was of those
students who took AP reduced-fee exams in high school and those who did not take AP exams.
Both sample groups consisted of only low-SES (less than $30,000 family income) students.
The study used several comparison variables. Basic demographics, parental education,
high school GPA, AP scores, SAT scores, First Year College GPA, and college retention were
the most common variables used in the study.
“In 2007, 58.4% of high school graduates from low-income families’ enrolled in a two-

or four-year college immediately after high school, compared to 63.3% of students from middle-
income families and 78.2% of students from high-income” (Wyatt & Mattern, 2011, p. 4). This
study showed that overall 60.5% of those low-SES student who had taken AP exams and only
38% of those who had not taken AP exams enrolled in college.
Additionally, retention rates also varied between the groups. The retention rates were
83.6% of those student who took AP exams and 74.1% of those student who did not take AP
exams. (Wyatt & Mattern, 2011).
Once in college, “the student will intend to graduate, have a major, participate in campus
activities, ... have a positive attitude toward the school … fewer of these attributes a student has,
the greater the chances of the student withdrawing from college” (stateuniversity.com, 2014).
External Factors
A weak economy, doubtful job outlook
Taking a look at the economy reflects upon student retention as opportunity presents
itself elsewhere. Fewer first-time students are staying enrolled for a second term and in turn are
voluntarily departing. A study from the National Student Clearinghouse showed that “The rate of
students enrolling for a second fall term at any college -- known as persistence -- dropped 1.2
percentage points to 69 percent in Fall 2012 from Fall 2009” (Blessing, 2014, para. 2).
The article continues to state that “The drop in returning students parallels a declining
jobless rate in the period. The unemployment rate fell to 7.9 percent at the end of 2012 from 9.9
percent three years earlier” (Blessing, 2014, para 3). What this data means is that some students
are choosing to work instead of finishing school. According to Jason DeWitt, manager of
research services at a nonprofit organization, “The problem (with not finishing school) is that it
can leave them (prior students) underemployed in the long run” (Blessing, 2014, para 4).
Contradictory to De Witt’s perspective, an article written by Christopher Denhart

suggests that there is recent research that too many students are going to college and it is not
necessarily benefitting all students who do end up graduating. “CCAP has long held the belief
that while college is a great investment for some, there are many for which it is not” (Denhart,
2014, para. 2). Not all jobs require degrees; there are some jobs that only require certifications or
related experience. It was estimated that about “48 percent of recent graduates are
underemployed by measuring the number of graduates in jobs that required college degrees…vs
the number of graduates in jobs that did not require these degrees” (Denhart, 2014, para. 2).
Additionally, “the Fed shows that the demand for ‘college jobs’ has leveled off since late 2012,
while ‘non-college jobs’ demand continues to rise” (Denhart, 2014, para. 2).
Furthermore, “Out of every 100 kids that enter college, 40 don’t graduate, and for the 60
who do, 15 are in the bottom quartile and don’t make any more money than if they hadn’t gone
to college…a pretty risky investment” (Denhart, 2014, para. 4). With this kind of doubtful job
outlook after college, it is no wonder to why students are choosing to depart.
Academic vs. Social Support Related to Student Retention
Academic Support
Academic support has been found to have positive effects in some occasions. According
to Hagel, Horn, Owen, and Currie (2012), “institutions can influence retention by the support
they provide students,” (p. 217) but they must be proactive in doing so. It is not just teachers that
are needed for academic support; other services such as libraries and counseling are also needed.
It is helpful for an institution to provide help to students even though those students may not be
looking for any assistance. This can be achieved through a proactive approach, for example, by
having a librarian do a seminar on how to find resources in the library.
“The faculty members represent the authority figure, the mentor, and the role model that
may not appear anywhere else in the student’s life. Because the faculty members are in such a

position, their influence over students can be very significant” (McArthur, 2005, para. 4). This
can be a positive or a negative influence, depending on the relationships that students have with
those faculty members. The faculty with which the student has good relationships can provide
beneficial academic support for the student.
Social Support
Social support has been found to be more important to students, especially in the
beginning of their university experience. According to Wilcox, Winn, and Fyvie-Gauld (2005),
students seek emotional support from friends and family during their first few days at a
university. However, “as students develop social networks at university these become their main
source of social support during term-time” (Wilcox et al., 2005, p. 718). Different relationships
can be made within the first few weeks of school. Socializing may be more important to
incoming students of higher education than academics are. Dorms are good environments to find
new friends, and even classes can be a big help in making new acquaintances.
As previously stated, Tinto's model concludes that if a student does not achieve some
level of academic or social integration they are likely to leave school (stateuniversity.com, 2014,
para. 16).
Both academic and social support are important to students and can influence them in
many ways. However, students more actively seek out social support. Academic support that is
available to students may not be as approachable, depending on relationships.
Which degrees or programs have the highest retention rates?
Due to the limited available literature on this topic, the author used the enrollment and
graduation rates to research an answer to the question.
Undergraduate Degrees
According to the National Center for Educations Statistics (2013), there was 1,716,000

bachelor's degrees conferred in 2010–11.The highest were in business (21%), social sciences and
history (10%), health professions and related programs (8%), education (6%), and psychology
(6%).
Using a four-years basis for graduation, the enrollment rates for 2006-07 show that the
fields with the highest enrollment were business (21%), health sciences (10%), education (7%),
visual and performing arts (5%), and undeclared or not in a degree program (5%) (Digest of
Education Statistics: 2012, 2013). The rates using five and six year basis for graduation mimic
those above of the four year data.
When comparing the rates between enrollment and completion, the data translates into
retention in specific disciplines. Additionally, research was conducted using College Results
Online to verify the published data. This website uses a different data set, specifically U.S.
Census and AP testing results. The results are similar to those of the National Center for
Education Statistics.
Graduate Degrees
The highest number of master’s degrees awarded was in the field of business. This was
only by a narrow margin over education, 187,000 to 185,000 respectively. For the doctorate
degrees, health care and related programs (60,153) and legal professions and studies (44,877) top
the list (Digest of Education Statistics: 2012, 2013).

References
Blessing,K.(2014, July10). Few studentsstaying in college for second year,study says. Retrievedfrom
BloombergWebsite:http://ww.bloomberg.com/news/2014-07-10/fewer-students-staying-in-
college-for-second-study-says
College studentsretention - Defining studentretentio,a profile of successfulinstitutionsand students,
theoriesof studentdeparture. (2014).RetrievedfromState UniversityWebSite:
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1863/college-student-retention.html
Denhart,C. (2014, September4). Fed data showscollegeisn't a good investmentforall. Retrievedfrom
Forbes.com:http://www.forbes.com/sites/ccap/2014/09/04/fed-data-shows-college-isnt-a-
good-investment-for-all
Digest of Education Statistics:2012. (2013, July).RetrievedfromNationalCenterforEducations
Statistics:http://nces.ed.gov/
Hagel,P.,Horn, A.,Owen,S.,& Currie,M. (2012). 'How can we help?'the contributionof university
librariestostudentretention. Australian Academic& Research Libraries, 43(3), pp.214-230.
McArthur, R. (2005). Faculty-basedadvising:animportantfactorincommunitycollegeretention.
CommunityCollegeReview,32(4), pp.1-19.
O'Keeffe,P.(2013). A sense of belonging:improvingstudentretention. CollegeStudentJournal,47(4),
pp.605-613.
ParentalEducationalAttainmentand HigherEducationalOpportunity. (1999).Retrievedfrom
PostsecondaryEducationOPPORTUNITY:
http://www.postsecondary.org/last12/79199Parented.pdf

U.S. Departmentof Education.(2001). StudentsWhose ParentsDidNotGo toCollege:Postsecondary
Access,Persistence,andAttainment.NCES2001-126, by Susan Choy. Washington,DC:National
CenterforEducationStatistics.
Wilcox,P.,W.S., & Fyvie-Gault,M.(2005). 'It was nothingtodo withthe university,itwasjustthe
people':the role of social supportinthe first-yearexperience of highereducation. Studiesin
Higher Education,30(6),pp. 707-722.
Wyatt, J.N.,& Mattern,K. D. (2011). Low-SESStudentsand ColegeOutcomes:TheRoleof AP Fee
Reductions. NewYork:College Board.

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