1. NTUST MBA Lecture
The Critical Milestones of Ethics
and Its Managerial Effect Model
企業道德的發展關鍵及其行 效益計量
Professor Andrew B.C. Huang
Taiwan University of Science and technology
Management School
huang.prof@gmail.com
h f@ il
2008 Summer

2. 3 Elements of Capitalism
and the credit is the key
• Wide extension of credit;私人關係的信用借款 廣泛通行 於是
私人關係的信用借款,廣泛通行,於是
資金流通;
• Impersonal management;產業所有人以聘請方式聘用經理,因
之企業組織擴大,超過本人耳目足能監視的程度;
之企業組織擴大 超過本人耳目足能監視的程度
• Pooling of service facilities.技能上的支持與交通通訊等的運
用,使企業經濟力量超過本自活動範圍。
• What’s more, the 3 elements be functioned well by
the credit basing on the protection of law. 李約瑟與黃仁
宇1978年就資本主義的對談,取自《放寬歷史的視野》
• Credit is money, and Time is money : Max Weber in
“The Spirits of Capitalism”.
• Then, the question: “where’s the credit come from?”

3. Prisoner's Dilemma
A problem in game theory
• In its quot;classicalquot; form the prisoner s
classical form, prisoner's
dilemma (PD) is presented as follows:
– Two suspects are arrested by the
prosecutor. The prosecutor has
insufficient evidence for a conviction, ,
and, having separated both prisoners,
– visit each of them to offer the same
deal.
– If one testifies (quot;defectsquot;) for the
prosecution against the other and the
other remains silent, the betrayer goes
free and the silent accomplice receives
the full 10-year sentence.
– If both remain silent, both prisoners are None- Cooperate Defect
sentenced t only 5 years i j il f a
t d to l in jail for Zero-Sum
minor charge. Prisoner A Prisoner A
– If each betrays the other, each receives Game (Deny) (Commit)
a five-year sentence.
– Each prisoner must choose to betray
Cooperate Sentence Sentence
the other or to remain silent. Prisoner B 5.5. years 0.10
– Each one is assured that the other (Deny)
would not know about the betrayal
before the end of the investigation. Defect Sentence Sentence
How should the prisoners act? Prisoner B
Pi 10.0 10.10
(Commit)

4. Trust & Information is the Key
Why individual Rationality Fail to be Collective
• 理性的個人，盲目的群眾
理性的個人 盲目的群眾
• If we assume that each player prefers shorter sentences to longer ones,
and that each gets no utility out of lowering the other player's sentence, and
that there are no reputation effects from a player s decision then the
player's decision,
prisoner's dilemma forms a non-zero-sum game in which two players may
each quot;cooperatequot; with or quot;defectquot; from (i.e., betray) the other player.
• In this game, as in all game theory, the only concern of each individual
player (quot;prisonerquot;) is maximizing his/her own payoff, without any concern for
the other player's payoff.
• The unique equilibrium for this game is a Pareto-suboptimal (not the best)
solution—that is, rational choice leads the two players to both play defect
even though each player's individual reward would be greater if they both
played corporately. ( Individual Rationality VS Collective Irrationality)
• One
O experiment based on the simple dilemma found that
i tb d th i l dil f d th t
approximately 40% of participants played quot;cooperatequot;

5. 商業組織與商業資本
There is an old story in Ming dynasty
• Business is much more complex than two persons
• 客商之合作始自二人合同經營
• 《李秀卿義結黃貞女》:輪後一人往南京販貨,一人在戶州
發貨討賬,一來一去,不致誤了生理,甚為兩便。
• 為此形態 惟其成功全賴信用 端在兩邊買價 毫厘不欺
為此形態,惟其成功全賴信用,端在兩邊買價,毫厘不欺。
• 亦因此之故,其結構不易擴大,其結果亦難持久。

6. Chinese Definition of “Cooperate”
p
合字難寫，一人一張口
• The word of “cooperate”
is very hard to write,
since every persons
among them have their
own mouths with different
opinions..
• Each person has one
mouth.
• It will be fine if “with one
mouth: Agree 異口同聲

7. Chinese Definition of “Corporate”
p
個人之慾與利皆要知止且有分際
• Each person’s wants,
needs, and self-
interests should be
bounded with a clear
edge (Law ) and a
good awareness of
limitation (Ethic).

8. Chinese Definition of “Share”
分字是白刀子進紅刀子出
• Sh
Share i t cut the
is to t th
pile( large amount of
money) of benefits or
interests in adversely-
selected conflicts
conflicts.
• If it were not well
managed,
managed the
relevant beneficiaries
will fight and war each
g
other to the knife.

9. Summary
• “But h t i ht b th
“B t what might be the reality I ethics and values. M
lit In thi d l Money, nott
morality, is the principle of commerce and commercial nations.”
Thomas Jefferson, U.S. President said that in his letter to John
Langdon, March 5, 1784.
L d M h 5 1784
• It’s truth, the world we live was, is, and will not be 100% perfect.
But how could we decide what’s right better than ever, the
managerially reasonable, rational, and accountable evaluations
should be positive to lead us making ethical decisions.
• The payoffs and bribes for instance, probably the most
y y
frequent source of anxiety for multinationals’ managements
operating abroad. What are the options? What’s likely to
happen if I don’t pay? It’s really an ethic dilemma.
• In this lecture, we will discuss the theories and models mostly
being applied, and review the most critical theories in recent
ethic development.

10. Outline
• Are human characters natural good or evil?
What’s the world of Utopia(烏托邦)and peach
garden (桃花源) in business?
• What’s matrix of law and ethic, and how to make
ethical decisions by manageable approaches
and accountable accesses?
• The influential milestones and theories in
business ethics, and what do those saints and
masters want to teach us?

11. Learning Objectives
• Learn a easy method and a quick way of
,
how to evaluate ethics,
• As to be able to make business decisions
ethically.
ethically

12. What s
What’s the Ideal World That
Those Saints Want to Build
烏托邦與桃花源
Utopia and Peach Garden
Utopia is a name for an ideal community, taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir
Thomas More describing a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean, possessing a seemingly
perfect socio politico legal system.
socio-politico-legal system
The term has been used to describe both intentional communities that attempted to create
an ideal society, and fictional societies portrayed in literature.
桃花源說的是武陵漁夫忽然看到絕美的桃花源，不只風景美，而且沒有君臣、壓迫、戰亂
和欺詐，到處充滿和平、幸福，是晉代詩人陶淵明的理想世界。
和欺詐 到處充滿和平 幸福 是晉代詩人陶淵明的理想世界

13. Natural Good O Natural Evil
aua Or a u a
What’s The Reality of Human Behavior
• Humanity is natural good or natural evil
• 人本是性善或性惡？
• This is a not yet ceasing argument till now, and seems
have no true answer even in the foreseeable future.
• It depends
企業倫理的核心議題
The Story of Business and Its Development of Ethics
Environment is the ecology of ethics

14. Social and Law Level
The law is the basic floor
• Ethi l business conduct should normally exist at a l
Ethical b i d t h ld ll i t t level l
well above the minimum required by law.
• Law is the primary instrument of ethical advocacy at the
social level, but management should not view law as the
means of ensuring ethical behavior and practice.

15. The Law and Ethic Matrix
Searching For Manageable Methods and Accountable Tools
Ethical Should Be (What Ought To)
Yes No
Law Allow (Wha is)
yes
Legal Responsibility Whistle Blowing
Natural Rights and Lay Off
Freedoms
F d Corruption/Bribe
Consumer Protection Economic Responsibility
Fair Competition
w
Business-running
Business running
No
Social Responsibility Profit-making
Charity
at
Social Welfare

16. 3 Steps Ethical Analysis
In Business Application—Velasquez 1984
Step 1: Collect Relevant Information
Step2: Analyze the solution being acceptable or not
basing on 3 theories:
•Utility: Eff i l satisfy all affected persons?
U ili Effectively i f ll ff d ?
•Rights: Favorably respect all persons’ rights?
•Justice: Well Confirm with the standards of justice?
Not all no
All 3 No All 3 Yes
•Any “irrevocable reason”?
•Any one factor more important than others?
•Any ineffective factor?
Any
•Double-effect Test
No Yes
Step3: Decide Unethical Ethical

17. Case and Example
Payoffs and Bribes
P ff d B ib
• A bride is a payment to someone to secure a
sale, or to obtain approval or assistance from an
individual or organization (often a government
bureaucrat).
• Although an accepted part of commercial
transactions in many Asia, African, Latin
American, and Middle Eastern cultures, it is
often against the law in these very some
countries.

18. 3 S eps Ethical Analysis
Steps ca a ys s
Lockheed and CEO Carl Kotchian
• Most of the companies do bribe: In the 1970s, the Securities and
Exchange Commission found that the practice of bribing foreign officials
was widespread among U.S. multinationals, and 450 companies including
p g p g
more than 100 Fortune 500 firms admitted to making questionable foreign
payments in amounts totaling about $300million.
• According to a survey of Journal of Business Ethics, almost half U.S.
business professionals said that the bribery behavior was “nevernever
acceptable”; 32.5 % , “sometimes acceptable”; and 18.5%, “always
acceptable”.
• At that time, to give bride to win the deal is quite norm in aircraft industry.
And there was no law to regulate the bride action in foreign countries
countries.
• Lockheed CEO was wondering whether or not to make an estimated $25
million in payments in connection with sales of its Tri-Star L-1011 aircraft in
p
Japan.
• How would you do? If you were Lockheed CEO. And Why?

19. 3-Steps Ethical Analysis
p y
Example in Bribe
Utility Theory: Focus on creating the greatest balance of benefits
Utilit Th
over harms, generally giving equal weight to everyone who is
affected.
Bribe Example:
• In short term: shareholders and suppliers could make
pp
benefit in this bribery deal;
• Long run, company will have great possibility to suffer
the unpredictable costs (business cost +psychological
cost) from the deal; and it might bring the law sue and
p
public opinions p
p punishment ;
• So, in the whole, bribe is hard to match the effective
standard of utility.

20. Quantitative Weighting & Congruency
Economic Cost-Benefit Analysis
• ECMA measures the contribution to corporate
• Profits=Revenues -Costs
• Adjusting Revenues
j g
– Derived by products and services (Material revenue)； spiritual
revenue . financial and investment；Shadow Foreign-exchange
premium,
• Adjusting Costs
Adj i C
– Business costs, Labor costs, Materials and service inputs,
taxes, tariffs, subsidies, psychological costs
• Discounting
Di ti
– Discounting the project’s life stream of benefits and costs to their
present value.
– Shadow interest rate.
rate

21. Effect Model of Corporate Behavior
企業行為效益計量模型
“Cost-Benefit” is one of the constructive evaluation method,
and Effect of corporate behavior is consequently basing on
the same hypothesis. It’s model is:
n n n n
EFFECT (∑Pi)/(∑Ci)=∑(Ri-Ci)/(∑Ci)
EFFECT=( C
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
• Cost=∑(Business Cost)+∑( Psychological Cost)
• Revenue= ∑f( Material Revenue) +∑f( Spiritual Revenue)
∑( ) ∑( p )
• Benefit/Profit = ∑P =∑(R-C)

22. Economic Congruency Pattern
g y
The Suitable and Agreeing Line
ECBA Rates Of (d)
Return Congruency Gains
25%
Private
Unacceptability
Range
20%
Congruency
15%
Gains
10%
Public
Unacceptability
bl
5% Range
0 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% Private Financial Rates of Return

23. 3-Steps Ethical Analysis
p y
Example in Bribe
• J ti Theory:
Justice Th
focus on the fairness of society, and the appropriateness
of all affected
affected.
• Bribe Example:
• Can Bribe increase the fairness and freedom of the
people? Or hurt/harm anyone’s rights?
• Are anyone in this government and society having the
same chance to or to be bribed?
• Can bribe be helpful in upgrading the live standards of
low-class people, or at l
l l l t least t the extend of acceptable
t to th t d f t bl
level?
And how come to these three? Which is exactly clear,clear
and which is not?

24. 3-Steps Ethical Analysis
p y
Example in Bribe
Rights Theory: Contend people having certain natural
rights and that actions such as lying, stealing, etc. are
wrong.
Bribe Example:
• Is this deal against the law?
• Does company attack personal privacy, dignity, and
freedom? Are there anyone suffering threats? Or being
hurt?
• I global market, d
In l b l k t does it hurt th rights of l
h t the i ht f local people?
l l ?
Or enhance the corruption of local government?

25. 3-Steps Ethical Analysis
p y
Example in Bribe
Priority d Double-effect T t
P i it and D bl ff t Test:
Comparing the advantages and disadvantages that the
policy and decision will bring;
Bribe Example:
• How to compromise between advantages and
p g
disadvantages? And how to make sure the
disadvantages will happen in consequence?
• Will the disadvantages harm someone’s law and
someone s
personal rights?
• Even the company get the deal, but will this kind of
payoffs continually happen?

26. Ethics and Downsizing/Layoff
An Ethical Attention of Top Managers
Utility Theory: Net Benefit>Net H
Utilit Th N tB fit N t Harm
• Do the organization’s effectiveness increase?
• Will the organization be able to generate the
same gross revenues with profitability by
reducing l b costs?
d i labor t ?
• What’s the law and regulation define? How
about it’s relevant cost?
b t it’ l t t?
• One, 200 layoff, and how do others not layoff
think
thi k your organization value? D you walk th
i ti l ? Do lk the
talk? (psychological costs)

27. Ethics and Downsizing/Layoff
An Ethical Attention of Top Managers
Rights Theory: Human’s Nature Rights
• Have you treated employee (p p ) with dignity
y p y (people) g y
and respect (human/nature rights), and then-
when you get into a downsizing or lay off mode.
y g g y
• To treat employee with dignity and respect which
means you give them advance notice, as much
as you possibly can. You provide assistance, if
you can, to get placement elsewhere.

28. Ethics and Downsizing/Layoff
An Ethical Attention of Top Managers
• J ti Th
Justice Theory: Fairness and Truth
F i d T th
• Have your organization committed to fair play
(the powerless could share the better rights) and
to treating employee (people) honestly (justice
and fair)—then when you get into a downsizing
) y g g
or layoff mode
• To play fairly and honestly, you do whatever you
can: giving i f
i i information, h l answers t
ti help, to
questions.
• Believe that employees are not by and large
not, large,
unreasonable in their expectations. They ought
to have answers to the questions.
q

29. Think Creatively
Value-added Ethics and Actions
• Before making a final decision in ethics be sure that you
ethics,
haven’t unnecessarily forced yourself into a corner of
systematic structure or system;
• Sometimes, and quite often, a new value could be
generate and add, if you can open your eyes and hearts
to the whole world and human life.
• Are there any alternatives I can do, or are there any
value that I can contribute ? Back to the roots of
value.
value
• 孔子：不憂不懼，是為君子
• 莊子：天地與我並生，萬物與我合一
• 道德的真義: 消遙的創意 (莊子)
海到盡頭天作岸，山登絕頂我為峰

30. Preferred Ethics and Interests
優位道德與利益
• Source from Preferred Freedoms(優位自由) of laws it happens
laws,
when the freedoms in conflict, and then which one will be preferred
than the others.
• In law the freedoms include:
law,
1. Equality and Democracy: non-discrimination;
2. Freedom of Contract: Bargaining position’s unfairness due to its
originality of power. Antitrust and restrictive trade practices;
power
Standard-form Contract.
3. The Right of Property;
4.
4 The Right of Association; Except against Public Order Act;
5. Freedom of Labor:
6. Freedom from Want and Social Security;

31. Preferred Ethics and Interests
優位道德與利益
7.
7 Freedom of Speech and of the Press; Limit of
Tolerance忍耐極限，民主政府對於某些特定團体挑撥不
滿情緒時所能忍受之最大程度。The privacy of
information source.
i f ti
8. Freedom of Religion;
9.
9 Personal Freedom; Travel job and place to live人身自
Travel, job,
由包括任意旅行、納拒聘僱與擇地而居的自由。
10. The Rule of Law;法冶指 due process of law (法律正當
程序)，包括司法獨立與任何人除非觸犯適當公佈的特定
程序) 包括司法獨立與任何人除非觸犯適當公佈的特定
法律，否則不受刑事處罰、公平與迅速審判、警察獲取口
供方法之司法節制、被捕在押候審時之對被告提供適適法
律辯護保障。
律辯護保障

32. The Managerial Strategy
To Cross-Cultural Conflicts
Highly E hi l
Hi hl Ethical Fully-Managed
F ll M d Highly U
Hi hl Urgent Strategy
S
Meaning Trend/develop. Problem-solve
yes yes yes Nego
yes yes no Educate/Coop
yes no yes Escape
yes no no Educate/Coop
no yes yes Escape/Nego/
E /N /
Endure
no yes no Educate/Coop
no no yes Adjust
no no no Escape
Source: Kohls and Buller, 1994

33. Self-reinforcing Mechanisms in Ethics
g
The Ethics as an Evolving Dynamic System
• Dynamic Ethic Value:
A.
A The Structural Theory(概念框架): The
Accountable value (可度量的價值) David Ruelle,
France Scientist Chance and Chaos
Scientist, Chaos,,
B. The Basic Theory (理論基礎): Newton
Dynamic Th
D i Theory and M d l(牛頓力學) 位置 速
d Model(牛頓力學), 位置,速
度和流量+純度

34. The Model of Ethical Value
道德價值方程式
• N t ’ M d l (Th
Newton’s Model (Theory)--Energy=MV²/2
) E MV²/2
• 牛頓定律=動能(E)=質量(M)乘以速度(V)平方之一半
We therefore evaluate “the value of ethics” basing on the
same model by adding some amplification. That is:
amplification
• The model of Ethical Value=MVPV
• M (Greatest Good) V (Greatest Number),
Good), Number)
• V (Vitality of Time), P( Purity of Ethics)
• 道德價值方程式=質(道德價值高低)量(影響人數多少)時間
(信譽時間長短)純度(道德)

35. The Dynamic System
y y
Managing Ethics by Accountable Access
Ethical Dynamics (E
Ethi l D i (Energy)=MVPV=Quantity + Q lit V lidit P it
) MVPV Q tit Quality+ Validity+Purity
Source: Newton’s Energy Model=MV²/2=動能是質量乘以速度平方的一半
Purity
No illegal
Ethical Priority No Unreason
Quality-M
No Misunderstood
Greatest N
Quantity—
Q
Majority
M
Affected
A
Greatest Good
No Undisclosed
Validity
—M
Validity Creative
C ti
Number
y
Time Value-
Record added

36. Flowchart of Ethic Evaluation Model
Creative Dynamic Energy
Flexibility Matrix
Mobility
Ethic
Conical Value Model
Purity Vitality
Time Period
Cost-Benefit
Net Profit

37. The S e g o Ethical Co c
e Strength of ca Conflict
An Issue-contingent Model by Thomas M. Jones,1991
Factor Strength
The benefits and The greatest balance of benefits and
harms of results
h f lt harms, positive impact
The social The more consensuses, the more
consensuses strength
The possibility of The greater possibility, the greater
influence influence
i fl
The urgency of time The more urgent, the more strength
The closeness of The more close, the more strength
society, culture, and
psychology

38. The Ethics Priority--Majority Matrix
y j y
Value Sensing of Ethics
Quality/
Q li / Universal
U i l Social
S i l Professional
P f i l Private
Pi t
of conce
Ethical P
Quantity High Low
Human Responsibility Ethics Virtue
erned goo
Priority=T Grea
Nature Contract Character
High Rights Justice Trust Honest
Duty
y Fairness Integrity
g y Kind
The
od
Property Charity Loyalty Talent
Freedom Gut
Worldwide Equality
atest prio
Value in
Ladder
Community
ority
Corporate
Individual
Affected Majority= The greatest possibility of affected numbers.

39. Conical Distillation
Purity Processing and Selecting
Negative Test Details/Factors
•None hurt the general
None illegal universal values;
沒有不合法 •None bring only
net harm result;
•None f
N focus only
l
None Unreasonable
the short term;
沒有不合理/無不正當
•None make decision
Justice/Fair
in a vacuum;
None Irresponsible •None stop looking
沒有不合情 for alternatives;
Harm to others •None hurt
your gut or intuition;
None Undisclosed
None Misunderstood
Ethical Behaviors

40. What’s the Val es in Ethics
Values
Those Saints and Masters Want to Teach Us
天下為公、講信修睦
老吾老以及人之老、幼吾幼以及人之幼
Reducing selfish and sharing power are the two key
issues that all those saints
both western and eastern want to deal

41. The Ethics Theory of China
已所不欲勿施於人 • Confucius
Confucius' principles championed
strong familial loyalty, ancestor
仁者不憂、智者不惑、勇者不懼 worship, respect of elders by their
children, and the family as a basis
for an ideal go ernment
government.
• He expressed the well-known
principle, quot;Do not do to others
what you do not want done to
y
yourselfquot;
• He also looked nostalgically upon
earlier days, and urged the
Chinese,
Chinese particularly those with
political power, to model
themselves on earlier examples.
quot;The superior man seeks for it in
himself.
himself The petty man seeks for it
in othersquot;

42. Ethics： What one does not wish for
oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else
• The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in禮Lǐ is based on three important
conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and
deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily
behavior.
• yì (義 can be translated as righteousness though it may simply mean what is
righteousness,
ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of
self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would
be a better, more righteous person if one based one's life upon following a path
designed to enhance the g
g greater ggood, an outcome of yì. This is doing the right thing
, y g g g
for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity.
• (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most
often translated as quot;benevolencequot; or quot;humanenessquot;; translator Arthur Waley calls it
quot;Goodnessquot;, and other translations been put forth include quot;authoritativenessquot; and
quot;selflessness.quot;
quot; lfl quot;
• Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather
than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of仁rén so
that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of義yì.
To lti t
T cultivate one's attentiveness to仁rén one used another Confucian version of th
' tt ti t 仁é d th C f i i f the
Golden Rule: one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat
oneself.
• Virtue is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical
practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other
other.

43. What s
What’s Ethics in Society?
And Its’ Application in Public Interests
• What exactly are ethics? Roughly translated an individual’s or
translated, individual s
organization's ethics come down to the standards that are followed in
relationships with others—the real integrity of the individual or organization.
• Philosophers throughout the ages have debated the essence of ethics.
p g g
Aristotle’s Golden Rule mean of moral virtue could be found between two
extreme points of view. Kant’s categorical imperative recommended acting
“ on that maximum which you will to become a universal law”. Mill’s principle
of utility recommended “ seeking the g
y g greatest happiness for the g
pp greatest
number.” And the traditional Judeo-Christian ethic prescribes “ loving your
neighbor as yourself”
• Indeed, this golden Rule makes great good sense in the practice of public
relations and many other professionals
professionals.
• Public relations people, in particular, must be ethical. They can’t assume
that ethics are strictly personal choices without relevance or related
methodology for resolving moral quandaries. Rather, as the Code of
Professional St d d of th P bli R l ti
P f i l Standards f the Public Relations S i t of A
Society f America St t
i States,
practitioners must be scrupulously honest and trustworthy, acting at all
times in the public interest.

44. Niccolo Machiavelli: The Prince
馬基維利：君王論
• 君王既受全民所托，生死與共，則不能在行事時受一般道德習慣之約束。
君王既受全民所托，生死與共，則不能在行事時受一般道德習慣之約束
• 君王用詭計亦為之，主持謀殺亦為之，其為人敬愛不如令人畏懼。
• The Prince, by Machiavelli, touches on all the important character traits of
an ideal ruler. He includes a prince's attributes, his focus, his strategies and
prince s
his behavior.
• Machiavelli's idea of a prince's attributes should be. There are four main
attributes that a prince should possess: intelligence, strength, determination,
and tenaciousness
tenaciousness.
• A prince must have the smarts to determine right from wrong. In times of
trouble, he must know which path to take next. Strength; a prince must be
physically, and emotionally strong to face whatever comes at him. A prince's
determination is very crucial i ti
d t i ti i i l in times of h d hi
f hardship.
• A prince must be willing to push on through the most difficult of times. He
also must encourage his people and believe for himself that the struggle will
soon be over.

45. John Locke: Property Right
洛克：私人財產權
• Two Treatises of John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28
Government政府論二講 October 1704) was an English
• Theory of value and property philosopher.
勞力價值論 英國光榮革命(Glorious Revolution)
• 上帝以全世界的資源分配於全 發言人 and supported社會契約
人類，凡人以一己之力與一部 social contract theory.
份資源結合即成為私產。
• He argues that property is a
natural right and it is derived
from labor.
• Locke believed that ownership
of property is created by the
application of labor. In addition,
property precedes government
and government cannot
quot;dispose of the estates of the
subjects arbitrarily.quot;
j y

46. J.J. Rousseau
盧梭：社會公約
• Theory of Natural Man
“The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said quot;This is mine,quot; and found
people naive enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society.
From how many crimes, wars and murders from how many horrors and misfortunes
crimes wars, murders,
might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch,
and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this imposter; you are undone if you
once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to
nobody.
nobody ” — Jean-Jacques Rousseau Discourse on Inequality 1754
Jean Jacques Rousseau, Inequality,
• Political theory quot;The Social Contractquot;
Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is The Social Contract, According to
Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and
abandoning their claims of natural right individuals can both preserve themselves
right,
and remain free.
This is because submission to the authority of the general will公眾之志願of the
people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of
others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are collectively the
are, collectively,
authors of the law.

47. Karl Marx (1818 1883)
(1818-1883)
At the Communist league s request Marx and
league's • Frederick Engels /a> Marx and Engels
Engels,/a>.
Engels authored the quot; Communist Manifesto,quot; were both active in various
which outlines the theory of the class struggle, revolutionary groups and together
and of the revolutionary role of the proletariat. worked out the theory and tactics of
quot;Revolutionary Proletarian Socialism
Revolutionary Socialismquot;
• In 1864 the quot;International Working Men's or quot;Communism.quot;
Associationquot; was founded in London. Marx
was a central figure in the new organization,
and author of its first statement, and a host
of resolutions declarations and manifestos
resolutions, manifestos.
• The development of Modern
Industry, therefore, cuts from under
its feet the very foundation on
which the bourgeoisie produces
and appropriates products. What
the bourgeoisie, therefore,
produces, above all, are its own
grave-diggers. Its fall and the
victory of the proletariat are equally
i t f th l t i t ll
inevitable.” — (The Communist
Manifesto

48. Max Weber 1894 1920
1894-1920
• Protestantism新教主義which led
to the development of capitalism,
bureaucracy and the rational-legal
state in the West.
• Weber s
Weber's major works deal with
rationalization in sociology of • In another major work, Politics as
religion and government. a Vocation, Weber defined the
state as an entity which claims a
• His most famous work is his essay monopoly o t e legitimate use o
o opo y on the eg t ate of
The P t t t Ethi
Th Protestant Ethic and the Spirit
d th S i it physical force, a definition that
of Capitalism, which began his became pivotal to the study of
work in the sociology of religion. In modern Western political science.
this work, Weber argued that His analysis of bureaucracy in his
religion was one of the non-
li i f h Economy and Society is still
exclusive reasons for the different central to the modern study of
ways the cultures of the Occident organizations. His most known
and the Orient have developed,p contributions are often referred to
and stressed importance of as the 'Weber Thesis'.
particular characteristics of ascetic.

49. John Rawls (1921-2002)
正義論
• In A Theory of Justice Rawls attempts to reconcile
Justice,
liberty and equality in a principled way, offering an
account of quot;justice as fairness.quot; Central to this effort
is his famous approach to the seemingly intractable
problem of distributive justice.(分配的正義)
• Rawls appeals to the social contract. What principles of justice would we
agree to if we desired to cooperate with others, but would also prefer more
of the benefits, and less of the burdens, associated with cooperation?
• Justice as fairness is thus offered to people who are neither saintly altruists
nor greedy egoists. Human beings are, as Rawls puts it, both rational and
reasonable: we have ends we want to achieve but we are happy to achieve
achieve,
them together if we can, in accord with mutually acceptable regulative
principles.
• 正義論重點：1.每個人都有擴展其基本自由的權利;2.達成
正義論重點 1.每個人都有擴展其基本自由的權利;2.達成
社會與經濟的均等，以便讓弱勢者可以享有較多的利益。