Advice on Academic Writing

Advice on Academic Writing
ISFD N°41 (Adrogué)
Subject: Written Expression IV
Professor: Stella Saubidet
Student: María de las Nieves Bazán
May 2020

INDEX
• General
• Planning and Organizing
• Reading and Researching
• Using Sources
• Specific Types of Writing
• Style and Editing
• English as a Second Language
• Sources and Credits
• Slide 3
• Slide 7
• Slide 20
• Slide 28
• Slide 33
• Slide 40
• Slide 47
• Slide 52

1 - General Advice
In This Section:
• Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
• The Transition from High School to University Writing
• Understanding Essay Topics: A Checklist

Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
 An essay should have an argument. It should try to prove something—develop a single
“thesis” or a short set of closely related points. Confirmed citations and apt examples, from
resources related to the topic, should be included.
 If the topic doesn't have a ready-made thesis, you must formulate as exactly as possible
the question(s) you will seek to answer in your essay. Come up with a provisional thesis
or hypothesis. Test it, question it (think of arguments against it too).
 An essay’s organization—how it begins, develops, and ends—should be designed to present
your argument clearly and persuasively. Example: The order in which the parts of your
argument were discovered.
 Successful methods of composing an essay are various. For example:
* Start writing early (as means of exploration and discovery).
* Write what seems readiest to be written, even if you’re not sure how it will fit in.
* Keep the essay’s overall purpose and organization in mind (think of an 'outline').
* Revise extensively (draft and redraft, reread, etc). Revise sentences and transitions
from idea to idea, check the order of elements and arguments, and proof-read it.

Overall differences between the two institutions in philosophy and approach:
High School …
• Provides formulas.
• Offers you a ready-made structure to
work with.
• Teaches just one model for an essay that
can be apply in all courses.
• Encourages repetition.
• Provides rules.
• Rewards you for demonstrating your
knowledge of the material.
University …
• Discourages formulas.
• Provides freedom to come up with your
own way of structuring your argument.
• Offers discipline-specific guidelines for
approaching written work.
• Discourages repetition.
• Encourages critical thinking.
• Rewards you for engaging in analysis.
The Transition from High School to University Writing

Understanding Essay Topics: A Checklist
Remember, you are not being asked just to collect facts, but to develop and display your
powers of reasoning.
1. Note the key terms, including those naming parts of the topic and those giving
directions for dealing with it. Analyse, Compare, Evaluate, Argue.
2. Note which concepts or methods the topic asks you to use. An essay assignment
expects you to use course concepts and ways of thinking.
3. Ask yourself questions about the specific topic in terms of the concepts or methods
that seem applicable, to generate ideas from which you can choose the direction of
your research. Looking for controversies in the material will also help you find things
worth discussing.
4. Formulate a tentative thesis statement at a fairly early stage, or your preliminary
answer to an important interpretive question. It will help focus your investigation.

2 - Planning and Organizing
In This Section:
• Organizing an Essay
• Using Thesis Statements
• Introductions and Conclusions
• Paragraphs
• Using Topic Sentences

Organizing an Essay
 Some basic guidelines
The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage,
not the writing or revising stage. What type of essay am I going to be writing? Knowing the
patterns of reasoning associated with a genre can help you to structure your essay.
 Avoiding a common pitfall
Remember: the structure of an essay should not be determined by the structure of its
source material. For example, an essay on an historical period should not necessarily
follow the chronology of events from that period. Your obligation is to advance your
argument, not to reproduce the plot.
 Outline
It is usually a mistake to do all of your research and note-taking before beginning to draw
up an outline. A plan is necessary, but you will be much more efficient in your reading and
your research if you have some idea of where your argument is headed. As you gather
evidence, those points that still lack evidence should guide you in your research.

Some techniques for integrating note-taking and
planning
 Method 1 – Index Cards: When you are researching, write down every idea,
fact, quotation, or paraphrase on a separate index card. When you’ve
collected all your cards, reshuffle them into the best possible order, and you
have an outline. Use topic colored ones too.
 Method 2 – The Computer: A different way of moving your notes around is
to use the computer. You can collect your points consecutively, just as you
would on paper. You can then sort your ideas when you are ready to start
planning.

 Method 3 – The Circle Diagram: When you have an idea, write it down on paper and draw a
circle around it. When you have an idea which supports another idea, do the same, but connect
the two circles with a line. Example:

Benefits of Planning
 Helps you to produce a logical and orderly argument that your readers
can follow.
 Helps you to produce an economical paper by allowing you to spot
repetition.
 Helps you to produce a thorough paper by making it easier for you to
notice whether you have left anything out.
 Makes drafting the paper easier by allowing you to concentrate on
writing issues such as grammar, word choice, and clarity.

Using Thesis Statements
When you are asked to write an essay that creates an argument, your
reader will probably expect a clear statement of your position. Typically,
this summary statement comes in the first paragraph of the essay, though
there is no rigid rule about position.
Here are some characteristics of good thesis statements:
It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained and
supported by further discussion.
It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument.
It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements.

Some myths about Thesis Statements:
 Every paper requires one. Assignments that ask you to write personal responses or
to explore a subject don’t want you to seem to pre-judge the issues.
 A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph. This is a natural
position for a statement of focus, but it’s not the only one.
 A thesis statement must be one sentence in length, no matter how many
clauses it contains. Clear writing is more important than rules like these.
 You can’t start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement.
It's advisable to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis statement near the start of a big
project.
 A thesis statement must give three points of support. The essay will explain and
give evidence for its assertion, but points don’t need to come in any specific number.

Introductions and Conclusions
A good introduction should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate
your particular focus in the essay. It also needs to engage your readers’ interest.
Some general advice about introductions
• Don't sink too much time into the introduction; you can do leave it for later.
• You should revise your introduction again at a later point, and do whatever changes
needed.
• Introductions shouldn't be too lengthy; consider the reasons, and the overall size of
the essay.
• Get to the point as soon as possible.
• If your essay has a thesis, your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of your
introduction, although it isn't a rigid rule.

How do I write an interesting, effective introduction?
Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you
will address.
Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first).
Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against.
Give some background information necessary for understanding the essay.
Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing the
topic.
Don’t provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already
knows.
Don’t repeat the assignment specifications using the professor’s wording.
Don’t give details and in-depth explanations that really belong in your body
paragraphs.

How do I write an interesting, effective conclusion?
If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the problem.
Recommend a specific course of action.
Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have
reached.
Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of
your paper.
If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point
with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your
introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay.
In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research
on your topic.

Paragraphs
• A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central idea,
called the topic.
• Probably the most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to
express the central idea of the paragraph in a topic sentence.
• Topic sentences are similar to mini thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence has a specific main point. Whereas the
thesis is the main point of the essay, the topic sentence is the main point
of the paragraph. Like the thesis statement, a topic sentence has a
unifying function.
• In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the
beginning of a paragraph so that the reader knows what to expect.

How do I develop my ideas in a paragraph?
There are a number of useful techniques for expanding on topic sentences and
developing your ideas in a paragraph.
• The definition paragraph does exactly what you would expect: it defines a term, often
by drawing distinctions between the term and other related ones.
• The analysis or classification paragraph develops a topic by distinguishing its
component parts and discussing each of these parts separately.
• A comparison or a contrast paragraph adds a key similarity or difference between, for
instance, two sources, positions, or ideas.
• A qualification paragraph acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not
absolutely true or always applicable.
• Very often, a single paragraph will develop by a combination of methods.

Using Topic Sentences
• What is a topic sentence? A topic sentence states the main point of a
paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis for the paragraph.
• Where do topic sentences go? Topic sentences usually appear at the very
beginning of paragraphs. This is usually the most logical place for it but
sometimes a transitional sentence or two will come before a topic sentence.
• How do I come up with a topic sentence? And what makes a good one? Ask
yourself what’s going on in your paragraph. Why have you chosen to include
the information you have? Why is the paragraph important in the context of
your argument? What point are you trying to make?
• Does every paragraph need one? No, but most do. Sometimes a paragraph
helps to develop the same point as in the previous paragraph, and so a new
topic sentence would be redundant. But if you are in doubt, it’s best to use
one.

3 - Reading and Researching
In This Section:
• Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing
• How to Get the Most Out of Reading
• Dealing with New Words
• Research Using the Internet
• Previewing
• Skimming and Scanning
• Summarizing

Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing
What is it?
To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued. This is a highly reflective
skill requiring you to “stand back” and gain some distance from the text you are reading.
Don’t read looking only or primarily for information. Read looking for ways of thinking about
the subject matter.
How Do I Read Looking for Ways of Thinking?
1. First determine the central claims or purpose of the text (its thesis).
2. Begin to make some judgements about context . What audience is the text written for?
3. Distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs. What concepts are defined and used?
4. Examine the evidence (the supporting facts, examples, etc) the text employs. Supporting
evidence is indispensable to an argument.
5. Critical reading may involve evaluation. Some essays may also require you to assess the
strengths and weaknesses of an argument. If the argument is strong, why?

How to Get the Most Out of Reading
 Textbooks: Mark only key passages in the text. Use symbols to show different kinds of
points. Make summarizing notes in your own words.
 Primary Sources: Read through each literary work or historical document, paying
attention to your own responses and questions. Write out a brief journal account of
your experience.
• Research Readings: You are looking for facts to support or modify your original view of
the topic, and for others’ opinions to bolster and to challenge your own. For books,
scan the preface, table of contents and index to see the general outlook and
argument. Then read sections on your own topic. Journal articles usually outline their
argument within the first page. Read the abstract first to see if the article will be of use
to you.Keep note cards on specific points so you can arrange them as needed.

Dealing with New Words
• First, SOUND it out. You might recognize the word when you hear it.
• Next, examine the STRUCTURE. Look for familiar word parts, and see if you can tell how the
prefixes and suffixes shape the root meaning.
• Look at the CONTEXT. Guess at the word’s meaning from the way it is used in the sentence.
• Only then, check the DICTIONARY. Check the pronunciation too.
• Reinforce your understanding by WRITING a usable brief definition or synonym in the margin
of your reading.
• When you have learned a new word, take steps to make it part of your active store of words.
• The best way to increase and deepen your general vocabulary is to spend time reading: a
newspaper or popular magazine will do.

Research Using the Internet
Internet is a tremendous resource, but it must be used carefully and critically. On the
Internet, on the other hand, “anything goes.” Anyone can put anything they want on a
Web site, there is no review. There are a great many solid academic resources available
on the Net, including hundreds of on-line journals and sites set up by universities and
scholarly or scientific organizations.
Basic Guidelines:
• Don’t rely exclusively on Net resources.
• Narrow your research topic before logging on.
• Know your subject directories and search engines.
• Keep a detailed record of sites you visit and the sites you use.
• Double-check all URLs that you put in your paper.

Previewing
When reading for academic purposes, it is preferable to read with certain
goals in mind so you don't waste time that could be used in other more
important elements. Here is a basic method which can be applied to many
texts:
• Read the title—don’t skip over it!
• Think about the subject matter: Have you read about this topic before?
• Who wrote this text? What information do you have about this author?
• Where was this text originally published? What type of publication is this?
• When was this text originally published? Does it matter?
• Read the chapter titles or the headings that break up the chapter or article.

Skimming & Scanning
By first skimming a text, you can get a sense of its overall logical progression.
 Use some of the previewing techniques.
 Read carefully the introductory paragraph, or perhaps the first two paragraphs. Try
to predict the direction of the coming explanations.
 Read carefully the first one or two sentences of each paragraph, as well as the concluding
sentence or sentences.
 Keep your eyes moving and try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words or terminology.
 Read carefully the concluding paragraph or paragraphs.
 Finally, return to the beginning and read through the text carefully, noting the complexities
you might've missed.
Scanning is basically skimming with a more tightly focused purpose: skimming to locate a
particular fact or figure, or to see whether this text mentions a subject you’re researching.

Summarizing
Summarizing a text is a useful study tool as well as good writing practice. A summary has two
aims: (1) identify the general concepts that run through the entire piece, and (2) to express
these overarching ideas using precise, specific language.
 Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence.
 The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the author’s thesis, or central
concept, stated in your own words.
 When summarizing a longer article, check how the various stages in the explanation are
built up in groups of related paragraphs. Divide the article into sections,then, write a
sentence or two to cover the key ideas in each section.
 Omit ideas that are not really central to the text.
 Avoid writing opinions or personal responses in your summaries.
 Be careful not to plagiarize the author’s words. If you do use even a few of the author’s
words, they must appear in quotation marks.

4– Using Sources
In This Section:
• Plagiarism
• Standard Documentation Formats
• Using Quotations
• Paraphrase and Summary

Plagiarism
Obviously it’s against the rules to buy essays or copy chunks from
your friend’s homework, and it’s also plagiarism to borrow passages
from books or articles or Web sites without identifying them. You
know that the purpose of any paper is to show your own thinking,
not create a patchwork of borrowed ideas.
The point of documenting sources in academic papers is also
courtesy to your readers because it helps them consult the material
you’ve found. That’s especially important for Internet sources.

Standard Documentation Formats
Different disciplines use their own systems to set out information about sources. Here are
samples of common systems.
• Traditional Endnotes or Footnotes with Superscript Numbers (humanities): systems with
small raised numbers matching footnotes or endnotes, followed by a bibliography.
• MLA System: Parenthetical Author-Page References (humanities): uses parenthetical in-
text citations of author and page, with all sources itemized in the Works Cited.
• APA System: Parenthetical Author-Date References (social sciences): emphasize the author
and date as the most important information about a source.
• Numbered Note Systems (sciences): use a citation-sequence system; numbered notes in text
that match a numbered list of sources at the end, given in the sequence the sources were
mentioned.
• Electronic Sources: To refer to sources such as films, DVDs, or Internet documents, follow
your chosen system as far as possible in giving author, title, and date. If needed, you may
have to improvise for some details.

Using Quotations
• How much should I quote? The focus of your essay should be on your understanding of the topic. If
you include too much quotation in your essay, you will crowd out your own ideas. Consider
paraphrasing and/or summarizing ideas instead.
• Why is it important to identify my sources? Quotations come from somewhere, and your reader will
want to know where. Provide at least some indication of who your source is.
• How do I introduce a long quotation? If your quotation is lengthy, you should almost always
introduce it with a full sentence that helps capture how it fits into your argument. If your quotation is
longer than four lines, do not place it in quotation marks. Instead, set it off as a block quotation.
• How do I let my reader know I’ve altered my sources? If you need to alter your quotations in any
way, be sure to indicate just how you have done so. If you remove text, then replace the missing text
with an ellipsis—three periods surrounded by spaces (…).
• How is punctuation affected by quotation? You must preserve the punctuation of a quoted passage,
or else you must enclose in square brackets any punctuation marks that are your own, except just
before a closing quotation mark (for grammatical fluency).

Paraphrase and Summary
When should I paraphrase, and when should I summarize? To paraphrase
means to restate someone else’s ideas in your own language. To summarize
means to reduce the most essential points of someone else’s work into a
shorter form. Along with quotation, paraphrase and summary provide the main
tools for integrating your sources into your papers, without cluttering them
with too many quotations.
How do I paraphrase? Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points:
1- You must provide a reference, and 2- The paraphrase must be in your own
words.
How do I summarize? Summary moves much further than paraphrase from
point-by-point translation. When you summarize a passage, you need first to
absorb the meaning and then to capture in your own words the most important
elements from the original passage. A summary is necessarily shorter than a
paraphrase.

5– Specific Types of Writing
In This Section:
• Writing an Annotated Bibliography
• The Abstract
• The Comparative Essay
• Writing in... (different areas)
• Effective Admission Letters

Writing an Annotated Bibliography
 What is an annotated bibliography? An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of
research sources. In addition to bibliographic data, an annotated bibliography provides a
concise summary of each source and some assessment of its value or relevance.
 Selecting the sources: The quality and usefulness of your bibliography will depend on
your selection of sources. Define the scope of your research carefully so that you can make
good judgments about what to include and exclude.
 Summarizing the argument of a source: An annotation briefly restates the main
argument of a source. An annotation of an academic source, for example, typically
identifies its thesis (or research question, or hypothesis), its major methods of
investigation, and its main conclusions.
 Assessing the relevance and value of sources: If your bibliography is part of a research
project, briefly identify how you intend to use the source and why. If your bibliography is an
independent project, try to assess the source’s contribution to the research on your topic.

The Abstract
Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the document that follows,
letting readers decide whether to continue reading and showing them what to look for if they
do. Though some abstracts only list the contents of the document, the most useful abstracts tell
the reader more. An abstract should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and
qualitative information in the document, and also reflect its reasoning.
Here are some other points to keep in mind about abstracts:
• An abstract will nearly always be read along with the title, so do not repeat or rephrase the
title.
• Your readers expect you to summarize your conclusions as well as your purpose, methods,
and main findings.
• Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the document.
• Avoid using I or we, but choose active verbs instead of passive when possible.
• If possible, avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols.
• Use key words from the document.

The Comparative Essay
• What is a comparative essay? A comparative essay asks that you compare at least two (possibly
more) items. These items will differ depending on the assignment.
• Make sure you know the basis for comparison. The assignment sheet may say exactly what you
need to compare, or it may ask you to come up with a basis for comparison yourself.
• Develop a list of similarities and differences. Once you know your basis for comparison, think
critically about the similarities and differences between the items you are comparing, and
compile a list of them.
• Develop a thesis based on the relative weight of similarities and differences. Once you have
listed similarities and differences, create a thesis statement that reflects their relative weights.
• Come up with a structure for your essay. Examples of structures are: 1- Alternating method:
Point-by-point pattern (it generally does a better job of highlighting similarities and differences),
and 2- Block method: Subject-by-subject pattern (used when you are unable to find points about
A and B that are closely related to each other, or when your ideas about B build upon or extend
your ideas about A).

Writing in different areas
For History Essays...
• Include Primary Sources (a document that
was created at the time of the event or
subject chosen to study, or by participants of
it) and Secondary Sources ( what other
scholars have written about the topic).
• Choose a topic and write a paper that: asks a
good historical question, tells how its
interpretation connects to previous work by
other historians, and offers a well-organized
and persuasive thesis of its own.
• Use the traditional endnote or footnote
system with superscript numbers when
citing sources.
For Literature Essays...
• Avoid plot summary. Mention only plot details that
are relevant to your argument.
• A good thesis is a statement of roughly 1 to
3 sentences that says something intelligent about a
literary work.
• Let the structure of your argument determine the
structure of your paper. It's not always necessary to
go by chronological order of events.
• Use analysis instead of evaluative judgments. When
writing a paper, focus on analyzing the work, not
celebrating it.
• Don’t confuse the author with the speaker. Often,
particularly when you are analyzing a poem, it is
tempting to assume that the author is also the
narrator. This is usually not the case.

For Philosophy Essays...
• Read the texts carefully, asking questions.
• Organize your ideas into a Logical Structure. Take
notes as you read. Then put your ideas for the
essay into a logical order.
• Augment your thesis with a Road Map that
reveals the structure of your argument (a few
sentences that announce in sequence what you
intend to accomplish in each of the key stages of
your paper).
• Make your expository writing as clear and
accurate as possible. Avoid vague or overly brief
exposition.
• Critically Evaluate a Philosophical Theory. Think
about both its strengths and weaknesses.
• Develop Your Own Answers to Philosophical
Questions.
For Sciences Essays...
• Audience: Consider readers' different levels of
knowledge.
• Titles: Often long; every word must count. Be
concrete, but avoid excessive detail.
• Headings: They emphasize the systematic nature of
scientific enquiry and provide an excellent
organizational tool.
• Jargon: Depending on the audience, this technical
language can be indispensable. It shouldn't be used
to 'sound sophisticated or obscure'.
• Passive voice helps emphasize the objectivity of the
sciences.
• The two most common tenses in science papers are
present and past.
• Science writing relies largely on summary; scientists
do not generally rely on direct quotation, and this is
especially true of report writing.

Effective Admission Letters
• Be focused. Look at the prompts given in the application form. If the prompt is
very general or the questions scattered, decide what point you want to make
overall.
• Be coherent. A clearly organized letter can create a picture of a clear-minded
and sensible person. Write from an outline or a diagram of main points.
• Be interpretive. You need to make an impression concisely, so don’t use your
letter just to repeat the facts set out in other parts of the application.
• Be specific. There’s no point making claims unless you can back them up. Refer
to the fact lists in other parts of your application and provide examples.
• Be personal. Your letter substitutes for an interview. Mention things you might
not have put into the rest of the application if they are relevant.

6– Style and Editing
In This Section:
• Revising And Editing
• Wordiness: Danger Signals and Ways to React
• Unbiased Language
• Punctuation
• Passive Voice: When to Use It and When to Avoid It
• Some Tools and Rules to Improve Your Spelling

Revising and Editing
Start Large, End Small
1. First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment.
2. Look at the overall organization. It’s worthwhile to print out everything so that you can view the
entire document.
3. Now polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word choice, sentence
structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
A Note on Appearance
• Include a cover page giving the title of your paper, the name of the course, your name, the date,
and the instructor’s name.
• Number your pages in the top right-hand corner.
• Double-space your text, including indented quotations, footnotes, and reference lists.
• Use a standard font in twelve-point size.
• Put the reference list or bibliography on a separate page at the end.

Wordiness: Danger Signals and Ways to React
Some common patterns of wordiness:
 Doubling of Words (Solution: choose one)
 Intensifiers, Qualifiers (Solution: omit or give specific details)
 Formulaic Phrases (Solution: use a one-word form or omit)
 Catch-all Terms (Solution: can sometimes omit it)
 Padded Verbs (Solution: use a one-word form)
 Unnecessary “to be” and “being” (Solution: omit)
 Overuse of Passive Verbs (Solution: change to active voice, if possible with a personal subject)
 Overuse of Relative Structures, ex. “Who,” “Which,” “That” (Solution: omit when possible )

Unbiased Language
• The “Man” Trap: Many standard wordings seem to assume that every
individual is male. Repeating he and she, him and her, his and hers at
every reference is clumsy. Finding alternatives can be as simple as using
plural rather than singular, or avoiding a pronoun altogether.
• Confusing the Group and the Individual: Many academic disciplines
focus on group behavior and can describe it precisely. Don’t get stuck in
the habit, though, of referring to people only as representatives of
categories.
• Gendered Labels: Terms that label people simply on the basis of their
sex have often gathered negative overtones.

Punctuation
 Commas: Commas are the most frequently used form of punctuation and probably the hardest to
master. It is best to learn the rules—and to know which ones can be broken and when. You should break
the rules for a purpose and consciously.
 Comma Splices: Occurs when you use a comma to join two complete sentences without placing an
appropriate joining word between them and the comma isn't strong enough to replace said word. It can
be fixed (depending on the situation) with the use of a period, a semicolon, a coordinating conjunction, or
a subordinating conjunction.
 Semicolons: The semicolon has two main uses. The first is to combine two closely related independent
clauses into one sentence, and the second is to separate list elements that are long or complex.
 Colons: Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward. The words preceding the colon create an
expectation; the words following the colon fulfill it.
 Dashes: Dashes serve some of the same functions as commas and colons, but they assert themselves more
forcefully. Like commas, dashes are used to set off interrupting clauses or phrases, but a pair of dashes will
tend to call more attention to what lies in between.
 Parentheses: Parentheses offer a third way of introducing interrupting material. If dashes provide a more
forceful alternative to commas, parentheses offer a tentative and modest one.

Passive Voice: When to Use It and When to Avoid It
 When do I use passive voice? You may use it when the actor is unknown, is irrelevant, you
want to be vague about who is responsible, you are talking about a general truth, you want to
emphasize the person or thing acted on, or when you are writing in a scientific genre that
traditionally relies on passive voice (ex. Lab reports).
 Why should I avoid passive voice? Passive sentences can get you into trouble in academic
writing because they can be vague about who is responsible for the action. They often sound
wordy and indirect. They can make the reader work unnecessarily hard. And since they are
usually longer than active sentences, passive sentences take up precious room in your paper.
 Weeding out passive sentences: Try turning each passive sentence you find into an active one.
Start your new sentence with the actor. Sometimes you may find that need to do some extra
research or thinking to figure out who the actor should be! You will likely find that your new
sentence is stronger, shorter, and more precise.

Some Tools and Rules to Improve Your Spelling
Use a (good) dictionary. Good spellers never rely solely on memory: they depend on a reliable, up-to-
date dictionary. There are many kinds of dictionaries available, both in print and online.
Be consistent about using British or American spellings in your writing. The key is to remain
consistent in your choices throughout a single document.
Always check certain “troublesome” suffixes in your dictionary. Some English suffixes confound
even the best spellers. Make it a habit always to check these types of words when you are editing or
proofreading your work.
Create your own “difficult-to-spell” lists. Also, learn the standard pronunciations for frequently
misspelled words.
 Watch out for homophones, near-homophones, and other easily confusable words.
 Use your computer spellchecker, but with caution. A spellchecker can be your first proofreading tool
for spelling, as it will catch any combinations of letters that do not form a known English word. But you
should never rely exclusively on your spellchecker.
Become familiar with English spelling rules. Contrary to common perception, English spelling does
often follow certain rules. Becoming aware of these rules can help you avoid some common spelling
errors.

7– English as a Second Language
In This Section:
• Using Articles
• Expressions of Quantity: Special Cases of Subject-Verb Agreement
• Verbs for Referring to Sources

Using Articles
• What are articles? Articles are special modifiers that appear before nouns or noun phrases.
Like other adjectives, they help clarify the meaning of the noun in your sentence. There are
only two articles in the English language: the and a.
• Where exactly do articles go? Articles belong in front of all other modifiers preceding a noun.
There are other special modifiers called determiners or markers that may appear in front of a
noun phrase.
• A useful set of rules for using articles. You can determine which article to place in front of
almost any noun by answering the following three questions: Is the
noun countable or uncountable? Is it singular or plural? Is it definite or indefinite?
• Using articles to refer to classes of objects. Nouns can refer to an entire group of similar
objects, sometimes called a class. There are three ways to refer to a class: using (1) the
definite singular, (2) the indefinite singular, or (3) the indefinite plural.
• Using articles in front of proper nouns. Most proper nouns are governed by simple rules. For
example, you do not place an article in front of the names of people or named places.

Expressions of Quantity: Special Cases of Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-verb agreement is generally quite straightforward in English. However, with subjects
that introduce the idea of quantity, some additional rules of thumb are needed. Here are a few
that are useful for academic writing:
• With fractions, percentages and indefinite quantifiers (e.g., all, few, many, much, some), the
verb agrees with the preceding noun or clause. Ex. "Much of the book seems relevant to this
study."
• The words majority and minority are used in a variety of ways. Ex. "The majority holds no
strong views" or "A majority of Canadians have voted for change".
• Expressions of time, money and distance usually take a singular verb. Ex. "Six weeks is not
long enough."
• Adjectives preceded by the and used as plural nouns take a plural verb. Ex. "The
rich get richer."
• Expressions using the phrase number of depend on the meaning of the phrase. Ex. "The
number of students registered in the class is 20" or "A number of students were late."

Verbs for Referring to Sources
You can indicate your attitude respect the sources you cite by choosing specific verbs to
refer to them.
 Pattern 1: reporting verb + that + subject + verb.

 Pattern 2: reporting verb + somebody/something + for + noun/gerund:
 Pattern 3: reporting verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/adjective:

Sources and Credits
 Writing Advice | University of Toronto – Last Visited on May 26th, 2020.
Available at: https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/

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