foundations for a new science

1. Foundations for a New Science of Learning 建構一個新的學習科學 Reporter ： March 10 Oct, 2010 SCIENCE (2009.7) [29.747]

2. 17 JULY 2009 VOL 325 SCIENCE

3. New insights from many different fields are converging to create a new science of learning that may transform educational practices.

4. We are born immature. Yet immaturity has value. Delaying the maturation and growth of brain circuits allows initial learning to influence the developing neural architecture in ways that support later, more complex learning. ( 我們出生發育未成熟，然後這個不成熟是有價值的。 緩慢成熟和大腦迴路成長容許最初的學習去影響神經結構的發展，以支持晚期更複雜的學習。 )

5. What characterizes the exuberant learning that occurs during childhood? ( 童年旺盛的學習特性 ) Three principles 1)Learning is computational. 2)Learning is social. 3)Learning is supported by brain circuits linking perception and action. ( 學習是計算過的 ) ( 學習是社會性的 )( 學習是透過大腦迴圈結合感知和行動 )

6. 1)Learning is computational. Infants use statistical patterns gleaned from experience to learn about both language and causation. ( 嬰兒和幼兒具有強大的計算技能，使他們能從經驗中收集的統計模式去推斷環境結構， 以了解語言和因果關係。 ) Infants’ pickup of this information is implicit; it occurs without parental training and begins before infants can manipulate the physical world or speak their first words. ( 嬰兒提取這些訊息是內隱的，它出現在沒有父母訓練，和嬰兒可以操縱的物質世界，或說出 他們的第一句話之前。 )

7. 2)Learning is social. Children do not compute statistics indiscriminately. Social cues highlight what and when to learn. ( 孩子不會不加選擇地估算：社會性的暗示會提點他們什麼該學和何時該學 ) They more readily learn and reenact an event when it is produced by a person than by an inanimate device. ( 當事件透過一個真人產出，他們樂於學習和重演那個事件，比之一個無生命的裝置更樂意 ) Educational technology is increasingly embodying the principles of social interaction in intelligent tutoring systems to enhance student learning. ( 教育技術正日益體現在社會交往原則於智能教學系統，以提高學生的學習 )

8. 3)Learning is supported by brain circuits linking perception and action. Social learning, imitation, and sensorimotor experience may initially generate, as well as modify and refine, shared neural circuitry for perception and action. ( 社會學習，模仿，感知經驗，透過最初的發展進行修改和精煉，共享神經電路以感知和行動。 新興領域的社會神經科學是旨在發現大腦緊密耦合的機制，支持和點化自我和他人之間，這 是無縫社會溝通和交相互動的印記。

9. Social Learning and Understanding Human children readily learn through social interactions with other people. Three social skills are foundational to human development and rare in other animals: imitation, shared attention, and empathic understanding. ( 模仿、分享注意力、同理的瞭解 )

10. 1) Observation and Imitation . This is an accelerator for learning ( 學習加速器 ) Children do not slavishly duplicate ( 孩子不會奴性地照抄 ) Learning by observing and imitating experts in the culture is a powerful social learning mechanism. ( 觀察和模仿專家 ) It is faster than individual discovery and safer than trial-and-error learning. ( 比個人發現快，比錯誤試驗安全 ) ( 孩子並不是盲目重複他們所看到的例如，假設一個成年人試圖拉開一個對象，但他的手滑 出目的。即使在 18 個月的年齡，嬰幼兒可使用該模式的失敗嘗試推斷另一個看不見的目標。 )

11. 2)Shared attention. Infants project their own experience onto other people. The ability to interpret the behavior and experience of others by using oneself as a model is a highly effective learning strategy. ( 嬰兒投射自身經驗到他者。能夠透過使用自己做為一個模型，去解釋他人的行為和經驗， 這是一個非常有效的學習策略 ) ( 讓嬰兒戴眼罩以經驗看不見，當再讓成人也戴上眼罩時，他因此能知道大人會看不見 )

12. Fig. 2. Gaze following is a mechanism that brings adults and infants into perceptual contact with the same objects and events in the world, facilitating word learning and social communication. After interacting with an adult (left), a 12-month-old infant sees an adult look at one of two identical objects (middle) and immediately follows her gaze (right).

13. 3)Empathy and social emotions Children also show primitive forms of empathy. ( 兒童也展現原始的同理心 ) When an adult appears to hurt a finger and cry in pain, children under 3 years of age comfort the adult, sometimes offering a bandage or teddy bear. (3 歲以下的兒童會因見到大人手指受傷和哭，奉憲他們繃帶和泰迪熊 ) Discovering the origins of individual differences in empathy and compassion is a key issue for developmental social-cognitive neuroscience . ( 對於發展社會認知神經科學，個體在移情作用與同理心出發點上的不同，是一個關鍵的議題 )

14. Language Learning Human language acquisition sheds light on the interaction among computational learning , social facilitation of learning , and shared neural circuitry for perception and production. ( 人類的語言學習闡明了其中的互動：計算的學習，社會學習的促動，和為了感知與產出，共享了神經電路系統。 ) Why infants learned better from people and what components of social interactivity support language learning are currently being investigated. ( 為什麼嬰兒向真人學得更好和有哪些社會交互作用成份去支持語言學習，目前正在研究。 )

15. Infants exposed to a foreign language at 9 months learn rapidly, but only when experiencing the new language during social interchanges with other humans. American infants exposed in the laboratory to Mandarin Chinese rapidly learned phonemes and words from the foreign language, but only if exposed to the new language by a live human being during naturalistic play.

16. Neural plasticity. ( 神經可塑性 ) In humans, a sensitive period exists between birth and 7 years of age when language is learned effortlessly; after puberty, new language learning is more difficult, and native language levels are rarely achieved. (7 歲前語言學習最不費勁 ) In birds, the duration of the sensitive period is extended in richer social environments. ( 鳥類與豐富的社會環境 ) Human learning beyond the sensitive period may also benefit from social interaction. Adult foreign language learning improves under more social learning conditions. ( 成人外國語言學習可受益於更多的社會互動 )

17. Fig. 4. A social robot can operate autonomously with children in a preschool setting. In this photo, toddlers play a game with the robot. One long-term goal is to engineer systems that test whether young children can learn a foreign language through interactions with a talking robot. ( 新的互動式機器人的設計，兒童的語言教學如同社交一樣的方式。 工程師們創造了一個機器人，讓幼兒自主的進行社會互動，認識自己的情緒和活動。 這種機器人技術目前被用來測試兒童學習外語是否可能通過社交遊戲與機器人。 )

18. Education Progress is being made in three areas: 1)early intervention programs, ( 早期介入方案 ) 2)learning outside of school, ( 學校以外的學習 ) 3)formal education. ( 正規教育 ) Programs enhancing early social interactions and contingencies produce significant long-term improvements in academic achievement, social adjustment, and economic success and are highly cost effective. ( 加強早期社交互動和偶然性產出有意義的事件，可以長期改善學業成績，社會適應，是極具 經濟上的本輕利厚的成本效益。 ) The science of learning has also affected the design of interventions with children with disabilities . ( 科學的學習：訓練神經系統幫助讀寫障礙殘疾學童提高語言與識字率 ) A recent National Research Council study on science education cataloged factors that enliven learning in informal learning venues with the long-term goal of using them to enhance learning in school. ( 以非正式的學習的活躍性應用在正式學校裡提高學習目標 )

19. Conclusions (A key component is the role of “the social” in learning. ) A convergence of discoveries in psychology, neuroscience, and machine learning has resulted in principles of human learning that are leading to changes in educational theory and the design of learning environments. ( 一個整合性的發現 : 心理學，神經科學和機器學習，已導致教育理論變化和學習環境的設計。 ) 1)What makes social interaction such a powerful catalyst for learning? 2)Can key elements be embodied in technology to improve learning? 3)How can we capitalize on social factors to teach children better and to foster their natural curiosity about people and things? ( 是什麼促使社會互動如此強大地催化學習呢？ 有哪些關鍵因素可能具體化於技術上是改善促進學習？ 我們怎樣才能把握社會因素更好地教孩子，培養他們對人和事物天生的好奇心的人和事物？ )