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Chapter 3 - Problem Statement Formulation
1.
Chapter 3
Research Problems: Statements, Questions, and Hypotheses This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: • Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; • Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; • Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
2.
Importance of Research
Problems Formulates a clear, concise, and manageable research problem Communicates to others Focus and importance of problem Educational context and scope Framework for reporting results Indicates evidence-based inquiry Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 2
3.
Sources of Problems
Casual observation Relationship between cognition and affect Relative effectiveness of positive or negative reinforcement Deductions from theory Effectiveness of using math manipulatives Relationship between instructional style and learning style Related literature Study of dropouts in your locale Use of math manipulatives in secondary schools Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 3
4.
Sources of Problems
Current social and political issues Gender and race equity Inclusion Practical situations Evaluations of specific programs Effectiveness of local initiatives Personal experience and insight Teaching statistical courses from an applied perspective Effectiveness of non-threatening classroom assessments Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 4
5.
Formal Problem Statements
Purpose Introduces reader to importance of problem Places problem in an educational context Provides framework for reporting results— findings and conclusions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 5
6.
Problem Formulation in Quantitative
Research Is phrased as statements, questions or hypotheses Provides identification of population, variables, and logic of problem Presents logic of constructs, variables, and operational definitions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 6
7.
Construct Complex abstraction
not directly observable e.g., motivation, meta-cognition, self- concept, aptitude, etc. Derived from theory Expresses idea behind a set of particulars Can combine several variables into meaningful patterns Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 7
8.
Variable An event,
category, behavior or attribute Composed of attributes of levels that express a construct Each variable a separate and distinct phenomenon Two types based on what is measured Categorical variables—groups variable into attributes (categories) Continuous measured variable—can assume an infinite number of values within a range Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 8
9.
Research Variable Types
In experimental research Independent—comes first—influences or predicts Also called manipulated or experimental variable Antecedent Dependent—comes second—if affected or predicted by independent variable Consequence Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 9
10.
Research Variable Types
In non-experimental research Independent variable cannot be manipulated In correlational studies Antecedent called predictor variable Dependent variable called criterion Not always possible to tell which comes first When prediction not goal, but rather to see if there is a relationship between variable Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 10
11.
Operational Definition for Variable
Assigns meaning to a variable by specifying activities or operations necessary to measure, categorize, or manipulate variable Tells researcher what is necessary to answer question or test hypothesis Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 11
12.
Problem Formulation in Quantitative
Research Identify population, variables and logic of problem Specific research questions and hypotheses Questions—simple and direct Descriptive—typically asks “what is” and implies a survey research design e.g., What is current dropout rate in Louisiana? Relationship—implies a correlational design e.g., What is relationship between math attitude and math achievement? Difference—implies a comparison e.g., Is there a difference in effectiveness of graded and non-graded homework? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 12
13.
Research Hypotheses in Quantitative
Research Statements e.g., purpose of this research is to .... Questions e.g., What is ...? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 13
14.
Research Hypotheses in Quantitative
Research Tentative statement of expected relationships between two or more variables e.g., there is a significant, positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement States direction of relationship Should be testable, verifiable Should offer a tentative explanation based on theory or previous research Concise and lucid Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 14
15.
Problem Formulation in Qualitative
Research Is phrased as statements or questions, never as hypotheses Broad statements: how, what and why Begins with selecting general topic and mode of inquiry i.e., interactive and non-interactive Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 15
16.
Qualitative Field Records, Descriptions,
and Abstractions Employs inductive reasoning Selects a particular case (rather than variables as in quantitative) for in-depth study Case is a particular social situation chosen by researcher in which some phenomenon will be described by participants’ perceptions Aim is to gain understanding of a broader phenomenon Qualitative field records Participant observation field notes Interview tapes Researcher notes on historical documents Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 16
17.
Narrative Descriptions Detailed
narrations of people, incidents, and processes Completed after data collection because of discover-orientation of research Called “rich” or “thick” Contains information on People Incidents Participants’ language Participants’ “meanings” Synthesized abstractions Summary generalizations and explanations of major research findings of study Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 17
18.
Problem Reformulation Initial
statement of a broad, general question i.e., foreshadowed problem, phrased as “what,” how,” and “why” of situation Condensed problem statement identifying a specific focus Reformulation of problem during research—emergent design Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 18
19.
Statements of Qualitative
Research Purposes and Questions Qualitative problem statements Qualitative traditions of ethnography, phenomenology, case study, grounded theory, and critical study Focus on current phenomena through interactive data collection Historical problem statements and questions Analysis of documents and archives Focus on understanding past Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 19
20.
Mixed Method Problem Formulation
Equal priority to all questions both quantitative and qualitative data collected about same time Research questions and foreshadowed problems Problems usually presented together Findings from both kinds of data would be analyzed and interpreted together (triangulation) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 20
21.
Mixed Method Problem Formulation
Measured results explained by qualitative data Data collected sequentially Quantitative phase provides general results explained with qualitative data Explanatory design Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 21
22.
Mixed Method Problem Formulation
Qualitative questions, then quantitative questions Used when there is little prior research on a topic or practice that is new Qualitative methods used first to investigate scope of phenomenon Quantitative methods investigate findings in a more structured way Exploratory design Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 22
23.
Significance of Problem
Selection Rationale for a study Justifies why an evidence-based inquiry is important Indicates researcher’s interest/choice Knowledge of an enduring practice Theory testing Generalizability Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 23
24.
Significance of Problem
Selection Extensions of understanding Methodological advancement Current issues Evaluation of a specific practice or policy at a given site Exploratory research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 24
25.
Standards of Adequacy
for Problem Statements General research problem Does statement of general research problem imply possibility of empirical investigation? Does problem statement restrict scope of study? Does problem statement give educational context in which problem lies? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 25
26.
Significance of Problem
Does problem contribute to one or more of following? Develops knowledge of an enduring practice Contributes to theory development Expands current knowledge Provides an extension of our understanding Advances methodology Related to a current social or political issue Evaluates specific practice or policy at given site Explores an issue about which little is known Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 26
27.
Specific Research Question
or Hypothesis Quantitative Does specific research purpose, question, or hypothesis state concisely what is to be determined? Does level of specificity indicate question or hypothesis researchable? Do variables seem amenable to operational definitions? Is logic clear? Are variables identified? Does research question or hypothesis indicate framework for reporting results Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 27
28.
Qualitative Do research
questions, foreshadowed problems, or condensed problem statements indicate particular case of phenomena to be examined? Is qualitative methodology appropriate for description of present of past events? Is logic reasonably explicit? Does research purpose indicate framework for reporting findings? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 28
29.
Mixed Methods Is
relative emphasis of each method made explicit? Is order in which quantitative and qualitative data collected clear? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 29
30.
Other Criteria Is
problem one in which researcher has a vital interest and a topic in which researcher has both knowledge and experience? Are problem and design feasible in terms of measurement, access to case, sample, or population, permission to use documents, time frame for completion, financial resources, and like? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 30
31.
Other Criteria Does
researcher have skills to conduct proposed research and to analyze and interpret results? Does proposed research ensure protection of human subjects from physical or mental discomfort or harm? Is right of informed consent of subjects provided? Will ethical research practices be followed? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 31
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