2. Review of anatomy and physiology of GIT
The GI tract is a 23- to 26-foot-long pathway that extends from
the mouth through the esophagus, stomach, and intestines to
the anus.
The esophagus is located in the mediastinum in the thoracic
cavity, anterior to the spine and posterior to the trachea and
heart.
It passes through the diaphragm at an opening called the
diaphragmatic hiatus.
The remaining portion of the GI tract is located within the
peritoneal cavity.
3. UPPER GIT
Consists of structures that aid in the ingestion and digestion of food.
includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum
Hypothalamus
is responsible for notifying the body that it is satisfied or
has received sufficient food
4. Cont.…
Lower GIT
Consists of the small and large intestines
Digestion is completed in the small intestine , and most
nutrients are absorbed in this part of the GIT
The large intestine serves primarily to absorb water and
electrolytes and to eliminate the waste products of digestion
through the feces
5. Mouth
Salivation
the “thought” of food initiates saliva production
a.) Serous secretions;-contain ptyalin for starch digestion –
produced by parotid and submaxillary glands
b.) Mucous secretions- for lubrication of food – produced by the
buccal, sublingual and submaxillary glands
6. Cont.…
Mastication
chewing of food
teeth - for initial breakdown of food to small particles
it helps prevent excoriation of the lining of the tract and
increase rate of digestion
7. Cont.…
Major Structures in the Mouth
teeth – to grind the food
salivary glands – moisten food and mucous
membranes and begin carbohydrate digestion
8. Esophagus
is a hollow tube, the upper 1/3 is composed of skeletal muscles, the
rest is smooth muscle
lined with mucous membrane – secretes mucoid substance for
protection
the bolus of food arrives at the cardiac sphincter of the
stomach w/in 5-10 secs. after ingestion
the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevents reflux of food in the
stomach back into the lower esophagus
9. Cont.…
Swallowing(deglutition)
3phases:
1.) tongue forces the bolus of food into the pharynx
2.) the food moves into the upper esophagus
3.) the food moves down into the stomach
* Food is prevented from passing into the trachea by closing of the
epiglottis.
10. Stomach
Made up of 5 layers of smooth muscle 2
types of contractions:
1.) tonus contractions – continuous contractions
2.) rhythmic contractions – may be slow ( q2-3 mins.) or fast
– responsible for the mixing of food and peristaltic movement
Vagus nerve – supplies the nervous stimulation for the stomach
11. Cont.…
movement of food through the stomach and intestines is by
peristalsis the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscle
fibers that pushes the food in a wave-like motion
chyme – food in the stomach
- is pumped through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum
chyme – food in the stomach
- is pumped through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum
12. Cont.…
Digestive Function of the Stomach:
Pepsin – needed for protein digestion
HCL acid – aids in pre-digestion of food
13. Intestines
Small Intestine
2.5 cm.(1 inch) wide and 6 meters (20 feet) long–fills most of
the abdomen
3 parts :
a) duodenum – which connects to the stomach (10 inches)
b) jejunum – middle portion (8 feet long)
c) ileum – with connects to the large intestine (12 feet long)
14. Cont.….
Large Intestine
6 cm. (2 ½ in.) wide and 1.5 meters (5 feet long)
3 parts :
a.) cecum – which connects to the small intestines
b.) colon – 4 parts (ascending, transverse, descending,
sigmoid colon)
c.) rectum – 17-20 cm. (7-8 inches) long, anal canal
15. Cont.…
ileocecal valve – prevents backward flow of fecal contents
from the large intestine to the small intestine
vermiform appendix – has no function , near the ileocecal
valve anus – anal opening, is controlled by a smooth muscle
internal sphincter and a striated muscle external sphincter
chyme is propelled toward the anus by peristalsis, also mixes
the intestinal contents
in the colon, the feces is pushed forward by mass movements
stimulated by gastrocolic reflexes initiated when food enters
the duodenum from the stomach.
16. Cont.…
Defecation reflex
when feces enter the rectum and cause distention of wall of
the rectum - send impulses to the sacral segment of the spinal
cord – then back to the colon, sigmoid and rectum - initiate
relaxation of the internal anal sphincter -relaxation or
17. cont…
Secretion and Digestion
major portion of digestion occurs in the small intestines by the action of
pancreatic and intestinal secretions (enzymes) and bile
a.) Carbohydrate digestion
start in the mouth Ptyalin – breakdown polysaccharides to
disaccharides
intestinal enzymes (maltase, lactase, sucrase)
🡲 breakdown disaccharides to monosaccharides (glucose, galactose
fructose)
b.) Protein digestion
- start in the stomach pepsin – breakdown of proteins to polypeptides
- small intestines trypsin – breakdown of polypeptides into peptides and
amino acids
c.) Fat digestion
- fats require emulsification into small droplets before it can be broken down
into glycerol and fatty acids
18. cont.…
Absorption
• the intestinal wall has many folds which are covered by fingerlike
projections called (villi) -increase the absorptive area of the small intestines
• in the center of the villi are capillaries, veins, small arteries for absorption of nutrients into
the blood vessel system
• 90% of absorption occurs within the small intestines by active transport or diffusion
• amino acids, monosaccharides, Na+, Ca++ are transported by active transport w/ the
expenditure or use of energy
• other nutrients, fatty acids and H2O – diffuse passively across the cell membrane
• reabsorption of H2O, electrolytes and bile occurs mainly in the ascending colon
19. cont.…
• GIT role in Fluid and Electrolytes Balance
GIT secretions contain electrolytes
severe fluid and electrolyte imbalance may occur with excessive losses
of gastrointestinal fluids
Ex. 1.) Na+ and K+ deficits : vomiting, diarrhea, gastric suctioning, intestinal
fistula
2.) Ca++ & Mg++ deficits: malnutrition, malabsorption, intestinal fistula 3.)
Metabolic alkalosis : loss of gastric acid by suctioning or persistent
vomiting
4.) Metabolic acidosis : loss of bicarbonate-rich intestinal secretions by severe
diarrhea or fistula
• Other functions of the GIT
• the GIT supports bacterial growth and has a role in antibody formation
• intestinal bacteria synthesize Vit. K required for production of clotting
factors II (Prothrombin), VII, IX,X
21. Assessment of the GIT
Nursing History : Subjective Data
1.General Data
a. presence of dental prosthesis, comfort of usage
b. difficulty eating or digesting food
c. nausea or vomiting
d. weight loss
e. pain – may be caused by distention or sudden contraction of
any part of the GIT
specify the area, describe the pain
22. Cont.….
2.Specific data if symptoms are present
situations or events that effect symptoms
onset, possible cause, location, duration, character
of symptoms
relationship of specific foods, smoking or alcohol to
severity
23. Cont.….
3. Normal pattern of bowel elimination
a. frequency and character of stool
b. use of laxatives, enemas
24. Cont.…
Recent changes in normal patterns
changes in character of stool (constipation, diarrhea, or alternating
constipation and diarrhea)
changes in color of stool
melena - black tarry stool (upper GI bleeding)
hematochezia – fresh blood in the stool (lower GI bleeding)
c. drugs /medications being taken
d. measures taken to relieve symptoms
25. Physical Examination : Objective Data
a.) Mouth and Pharynx
1. lips – color, moisture, swelling, cracks or lesions
2. teeth – completeness (20 in children, 32 in adults), caries,
loose teeth, absence of teeth impair adequate chewing
3. gums – color, redness, swelling, bleeding, pain (gingivitis)
4. mucosa – color (light pink)
26. Cont.….
examine for moisture, white spots or patches, areas of bleeding,
or ulcers
white patches – due to candidiasis (oral thrush)
white plaques w/in red patches may be malignant lesions
tongue – color, mobility, symmetry, ulcerations / lesions or nodules
pharynx – observe the uvula, soft palate, tonsils, posterior pharynx
signs of inflammation (redness, edema, ulceration, thick
yellowish secretions), assess also for symmetry of uvula and
tonsil.
27. Cont.…
b.)Abdomen
assess for the presence or absence of tenderness, organ enlargement,
masses, spasm or rigidity of the abdominal muscles, fluid or air in the
abdominal cavity.
Anatomic Location of Organs
RUQ – liver, gallbladder, duodenum, right kidney, hepatic flexure of colon
RLQ- cecum, appendix, right ovary and fallopian tube
LUQ – stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas, splenic flexure of colon
LLQ – sigmoid colon, left ovary and tube
28. Cont.…
1. Inspection
assess the skin for color, texture, scars, striae, engorged
veins, visible peristalsis (intestinal obstruction), visible
pulsations (abdominal aorta), visible masses (hernia)
assess contour (flat, protuberant, globular)
abdominal distension, measure abdominal girth or
circumference at the level of umbilicus or 2-5 cm. below
29. Cont.…
2. Auscultation
presence or absence of peristalsis or bowel sounds
Normoactive – every 5-20 secs.
Hypoactive – 1 or 2 sounds in 2 mins.
Absent – no sounds in 3-5 mins.
peritonitis, paralytic ileus,
Hyperactive – 5-6 sounds in less than 30 sec.
diarrhea, gastroenteritis, early intestinal obstruction
30. Cont.…
3.Percussion
done to confirm the size of various organs
to determine presence of excessive amounts of air or fluid
Normal tympany
dullness or flatness – area of liver and spleen, solid structure.
Tumor
31. Cont.…
4.Palpation
to determine size of liver, spleen, uterus, kidneys – if
enlarged determine presence and chac. of abdominal masses
determine degree of tenderness and muscle rigidity
(rebound or direct).
32. Cont.…
c.) Rectum
perineal skin and perianal skin
assess for presence of pruritus, fissures, externa
hemorrhoids, rectal prolapse
33. Diagnostic Tests
1. Stool examination (fecalysis)
Stool for occult blood
o GI bleeding
o No red meat, turnips, horseradish, steroids, NSAIDS, iron
Stool for Ova and parasites
proper collection of specimen should not be mixed with water or
urine, should be sent immediately to the laboratory
34. Cont.…
2. CEA (Carcinoembryonic antigen)
(+) colon cancer and other forms of cancer
it is useful as in indicator of the effects of therapy
CEA - recurrence or spread of tumor
effectiveness of therapy
A blood sample is withdrawn or sent to laboratory
36. Radiologic Tests
visualization of the GIT by barium swallow, upper GI
series or barium enema
Barium – is a radiopaque substance that when
ingested or given by enema in solution, outlines the
passage ways of the GIT for viewing by x-ray or
fluoroscopy
37. Cont.….
1. Barium swallow/UGIS
for identification of disorders of esophagus, stomach, duodenum –
esophageal lesions, hiatal hernia, esophageal reflux, tumors, ulcers,
inflammation
Pt. swallows a flavored barium solution and the radiologist observes
the progress of the barium through the esophagus and take x-ray films
NPO for 6-8 hrs.
Post procedure:
o Increase fluid intake
Laxative
o Stool – white for 24-72 hrs.
o Observe for: impaction, distended abdomen.
38. Cont.…
2. Barium Enema/LGIS
Purpose: to visualize the colon to detect tumors, polyps,
inflammation, obstruction
Prep.
o low residue diet (1-2 days), clear liquid diet (evening meal)
o Laxative, cleansing enema in AM
Post
o Laxative or enema
o Same as UGIS
39. Other analysis
a.) Gastric analysis
to quantify gastric acidity Normal 1-5 mEq / L
gastric acid : gastric cancer, pernicious anemia
gastric acid : duodenal ulcer Normal gastric
acid : gastric ulcer
40. Cont.…
NPO for 12 hours
an NGT is inserted and gastric contents are aspirated, connected to suction
41. Cont.…
b.)Biopsy
Upper GI biopsy – biopsy of the oral cavity or tongue, or any lesion or
ulcerated area
- local anesthesia assess site for bleeding , give oral
hygiene
Biopsy of stomach - done during endoscopy
Rectal biopsy–biopsy of lesions, polyps, tumors of the lower sigmoid
colon, rectum and anal canal during sigmoidoscopy
monitor for signs of bleeding
42. Cont.…
Endoscope
directly visualize the GIT by the use of a fiberscape
fiberscope – has a thin, flexible shaft that can pass through and
around bends in the GIT, transmit light and the image can be seen in
the monitor
Colonoscopy
to visualize the colon
useful to identify tumors, colonic cancer, colonic polyps
not done when there is active bleeding or inflammatory disease
44. Achalasia
Absent or ineffective peristalsis of the distal esophagus accompanied by
failure of the esophageal sphincter to relax in response to swallowing.
Narrowing of the esophagus just above the stomach results in a
gradually increasing dilation of the esophagus in the upper chest.
Achalasia may progress slowly and occurs most often in people 40
years of age or older
45. Cont.…
Cause is unknown
S/S
gradual onset of dysphagia for both fluids and solids
loss of weight
substernal chest pain and heartburn (pyrosis)
regurgitation of esophageal contents onto pillow at night
46. Cont.…
Diagnostic tests : Barium swallow, esophagoscopy
Medical Mgt:
Medications–Nitrates, Nifedipine –to decrease LES
pressure
Forceful dilation of the LES by pneumatic dilators
a balloon is inserted and inflated for 1 min., 2-3 times
47.
48. Cont.…
Nursing mgt
Encourage pt. To drink fluids with meals and use the valsalva
Maneuver (bearing down with a closed glottis) while swallowing
To help push the food
Advise soft diet
Elevate head during sleepingto prevent regurgitation
After esophageal surgery, monitor for signs of esophageal
perforation as evidenced by chest pain, shock, dyspnea and fever
49. Gastritis
Gastritis(inflammation of the gastric or stomach mucosa) is a common GI
problem.
Gastritis may be acute, lasting several hours to a few days, or chronic,
resulting from repeated exposure to irritating agents or recurring episodes of
acute gastritis.
50. Cont.…
Gastritis is an inflammation of the stomach lining due to either erosion or
atrophy.
Erosive causes include stresses such as physical illness or medications such
as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
Atrophic causes include a history of prior surgery (such as gastrectomy),
alcohol use, or Helicobacter pylori infection.
51. Pathophysiology
In gastritis, the gastric mucous membrane becomes edematous
and hyperemic (congested with fluid and blood) and undergoes
superficial erosion .
It secretes a scanty amount of gastric juice, containing very little
acid but much mucus.
Superficial ulceration may occur and can lead to hemorrhage.
52. Cont.…
Risk factors
Bacterial infection: Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), Salmonella,
Streptococci, Staphylococci.
Family member with H. pylori infection
Family history of gastritis
Prolonged use of NSAIDs, corticosteroids (stops prostaglandin
synthesis)
Excessive alcohol use
Bile reflux disease
Advanced age
54. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
The patient with acute gastritis
may have
abdominal discomfort and
distension
headache
tiredness
nausea
anorexia
vomiting
hiccupping.
heartburn after eating
belching
a sour taste in the mouth
55. Cont.…
Epigastric tenderness on palpation due to gastric irritation
Bleeding from irritation of the gastric mucosa
Hematemesis—possible coffee ground emesis due to partial digestion
of blood
Melena—black, tarry stool
56. Laboratory Tests
Noninvasive tests
CBC to check for anemia (in women, Hgb less than 12 g/dL and RBC
less than 4.2 cells/mcL; in men, Hgb less than 14 g/dL and RBC less
than 4.7 cells/mcL)
Serum and stool antibody/antigen test for presence of H. pylori .
Diagnostic Procedures
■ Upper endoscopy
A small flexible scope is inserted through the mouth into the esophagus,
stomach, and duodenum to visualize the upper digestive tract.
This procedure allows for a biopsy, cauterization, removal of polyps,
dilation, or diagnosis.
57. INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS
Hemoglobin and hematocrit decrease.
Anemia (iron deficiency) due to chronic, slow blood loss.
Fecal occult blood positive.
Helicobacter pylori may be positive.
Upper endoscopy shows inflammation, allows biopsy
58. Medical TREATMENT
Administer antacids
anti acid syrup or MTS
Administer histamine 2 blockers:
ranitidine, famotidine, cimetidine
Administer proton pump inhibitors:
omeprazole and pantoprazole
Eradicate Helicobacter pylori infection if present.
triple treatment
59. Nursing Care
Monitor fluid intake and urine output.
Administer IV fluids as prescribed.
Monitor electrolytes (diarrhea and vomiting may deplete
electrolytes and cause dehydration).
Assist the client in identifying foods that are triggers.
Provide small, frequent meals and encourage the client to
eat slowly.
60. Cont.…
Advise the client to avoid alcohol, caffeine, and foods that may cause
gastric irritation.
Assist the client in identifying ways to reduce stress.
Monitor for indications of gastric bleeding (coffee-ground emesis; black,
tarry stools).
Monitor for findings of anemia (tachycardia, hypotension, fatigue,
shortness of breath, pallor, feeling light-headed or dizzy, chest pain).
61. Gastric and Duodenal Ulcers(PUD)
Normally, the gastric and duodenal mucosa is protected from acid and pepsin
by mucusand bicarbonate(base) that are secreted by surface epithetical cells.
Peptic ulcer
is a sharply defined break or ulceration in the protective mucosal lining of the
lower esophagus, stomach or duodenum which may involve the submucosa
and muscular layers
such breaks may expose the submucosal layers to gastric acid secretions and
pepsin and cause Autodigestion
True ulcers extend through the muscularis mucosa and damage blood
vessels, causing bleeding or may lead to perforation of the GIT wall
62. Cont.…
Peptic ulcers include:
Gastric ulcers that occur on the inside of the stomach
Duodenal ulcers that occur on the inside of the upper
portion of your small intestine (duodenum)
63. Pathophysiology
Peptic ulcers occur mainly in the gastroduodenal mucosa because
this tissue cannot withstand the digestive action of gastric acid
(HCl) and pepsin. The erosion is caused by the increased
concentration or activity of acid-pepsin, or by decreased resistance
of the mucosa. A damaged mucosa cannot secrete enough mucus to
act as a barrier against HCl.
64.
65. Cause of PUD
The most common causes of peptic ulcers are infection
with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).
long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) .
It’s a common misconception that coffee and
spicy foods can cause ulcers.
66. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Epigastric area pain:
Worse just after eating as acid increases with gastric ulcer
Worse when stomach is empty (with duodenal ulcer); may
awaken during the night due to pain
67. Cont.…
Bleeding from ulcer causes:
Hematemesis (vomiting bloody fluid—red,
maroon); more likely with gastric ulcer
Coffee-ground emesis (partially digested blood)
Melena (tarry stool) more likely with duodenal
ulcer
68. Cont.…
Perforation of ulcer causes:
Sudden, sharp pain
Tender, rigid, board-like abdomen
Knee-chest position reduces pain
Hypovolemic shock
70. INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS
Anemia due to bleeding.
Stool for occult blood positive due to bleeding.
H. pylori testing positive.
Upper GI or barium swallow shows areas of ulceration—not
done if perforation suspected.
Upper endoscopy shows ulcer.
Abdominal x-rays show free air in perforation
71. MEDICAL TREATMENT
Administer antacids
Administer histamine-2 blockers:
• famotidine, ranitidine, nizatidine
Administer proton pump inhibitors:
• omeprazole and pantoprazole
Treat H. pylori infection if present with combination therapy:
• Proton pump inhibitor plus clarithromycin plus amoxicillin or
• Proton pump inhibitor plus metronidazole plus clarithromycin or
72. NURSING INTERVENTION
Monitor vital signs.
Monitor intake and output.
Assess abdomen for bowel sounds, tenderness, rigidity, rebound pain,
guarding.
Monitor stool for change in color, consistency, blood.
Teach patient about home care:
Diet modification to avoid acidic foods, caffeine, alcohol.
Eat more frequent, small meals.
Avoid nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication.
Stop smoking
73. Gastroenteritis
An acute inflammation of the gastric and intestinal mucosa which is most
commonly due to bacterial, viral, protozoal, or parasitic infection.
It may also be caused by irritation due to chemical or toxin exposure or
allergic response.
Symptoms may be self-limiting or may need prescription medication to
resolve the illness.
Older or debilitated patients may have more severe symptoms or require
hospitalization due to dehydration.
74. CAUSES
Viruses
such as caliciviruses, rotaviruses, astroviruses and adenoviruses.
Bacteria – such as the Campylobacter bacterium
Parasites – such as Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia and
Cryptosporidium
Bacterial toxins – poisonous by products caused by bacteria can
contaminate food
Chemicals – lead poisoning, for example, can trigger
gastroenteritis.
75. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Nausea and vomiting due to gastric irritation
Diarrhea—watery, soft, may be mixed with mucous or
blood
Abdominal pain due to intestinal irritation
Abdominal distention
Fever due to infection
76. Cont.…
Anorexia due to gastric irritation
Malaise due to infection
Headache due to viral illness
Signs of dehydration—dry, flushed skin and mucous
membranes, decreased urine output, tachycardia, poor skin
turgor, orthostatic blood pressure changes
78. INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS
CBC may show leukocytosis or eosinophilia (parasites).
Electrolytes show imbalance due to GI loss.
BUN and creatinine elevated due to dehydration.
Stool for ova and parasites show positive with parasitic
infection.
80. Cont.…
Administer antidiarrheal medications for symptom relief:
• loperamide
• diphenoxylate
• kaolin-pectin
• bismuth subsalicylate
Need to allow organism one way out of gastrointestinal
system (either antiemetic or antidiarrheal.
81. PREVENTION
Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after activities
Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before preparing food
or eating
Use disposable paper towels to dry your hands rather than cloth towels.
Make sure foods are thoroughly cooked
Clean the toilet and bathroom regularly, especially the toilet seat, door
handles and taps
82. Stomatitis
DEFINITION: Stomatitis is an inflammation of the mucous lining
of the mouth , which may involve the cheeks, gums ,tongue ,lips ,
and roof or floor of the mouth. The word“ stomatitis “ literally
means inflammation of the mouth
85. Sign & symptoms
1. Pain or discomfort in the mouth.
2. The presence of open sores or ulcers in the mouth.
3. Fever
4. Irritability and restlessness
5. Blisters in the mouth
6. Swollen gums , which may be irritated and bleed.
7. Drooling.
8. Dysphagia.
9. Foul-smelling breath.
86. Management of Stomatitis
1. Medical management :- bismuth salicylate , sucralfate, antacids
• Water –Soluble lubricants from mouth and lips
• Topical analgesics, such as benzamine hydrochloride
• Topical anesthetics, such as lidocaine viscous
• Oral or parenteral analgesics, including opioids if needed, for
pain not controlled with above
• Topical corticosteroids.
2. Other management :-
• Antiseptic mouth wash
• Avoid excessive brushing
• Denture hygiene measures
87. Nursing Management
Maintain integrity of the oral mucosa.
• Instruct the client to brush and floss his teeth and massage his
gums several times daily.
• Advise the client to use gauze or a sponge tooth to clean the oral
mucosa when pain prevents the use of a toothbrush.
• Recommend the use of water, saline, or a dilute solution of
hydrogen peroxide instead of toothpaste or mouthwash.
88. Cont.…
Promote adequate food and fluid intake.
• Advise the client to eat a bland diet.
• Suggest that the client consume lukewarm, or cold food and
fluids, which may minimize discomfort and result in
increased intake.
89.
90. Prevention /Management
1. Good oral hygiene
2. Regular dental visit
3. Good health practices
4. Brush twice a day after meal and snack
5. Use soft brush or electric toothbrush
6. Use electric brush and floss daily
7. Stop smoking
92. DENTAL PLAQUE AND CARIES
Tooth decay is an erosive process that begins with the action of bacteria on
fermentable carbohydrates in the mouth, which produces acids that dissolve tooth
enamel.
The extent of damage to the teeth depends on the following:
The presence of dental plaque
The strength of the acids and the ability of the saliva to neutralize them
The length of time the acids are in contact with the teeth
The susceptibility of the teeth to decay
93. Dental plaque is a thick, gelatin-like substance that adheres to the teeth.
The initial action that causes damage to a tooth occurs under dental
plaque.
Dental decay begins with a small hole, usually in a fissure (a break in the
tooth’s enamel) or in an area that is hard to clean.
Left unchecked, the affected area penetrates the enamel into the dentin.
94. Because dentin is not as hard as enamel, decay progresses more
rapidly and in time reaches the pulp.
When the blood, lymph vessels, and nerves are exposed, they become
infected and an abscess may form, either within the tooth or at the tip
of the root.
Soreness and pain usually occur with an abscess.
95. Cont.…
The dentist can determine by x-ray studies the extent of damage and
the type of treatment needed.
Treatment for dental caries includes fillings, dental implants, and
extractions. If treatment is not successful, the tooth may need to be
extracted.
In general, dental decay is associated with young people, but older
adults are subject to decay as well, particularly from drug-induced or
age-related oral dryness (see the accompanying Gerontologic
Considerations box).
97. Sign and symptom
The patient’s face may swell
Pulsating pain
may feel tenderness
pain when eating or drinking something hot
cold or sweet.
grey, brown or black spots appearing on your teeth
bad breath
unpleasant taste in your mouth
98. Medical treatment
Treatment for dental caries includes
fillings,
dental implants
extractions. If treatment is not successful, the
tooth may need to be extracted.
Antibiotics
Analgesics
99. Prevention
Measures used to prevent and control dental caries include
practicing effective mouth care,
Reducing the intake of starches and sugars (refined
carbohydrates),
applying fluoride to the teeth or drinking fluoridated water,
refraining from smoking,
controlling diabetes, and
using pit and fissure sealants
100. Cont…
Brush teeth using a soft toothbrush at least two times
daily.
Hold toothbrush at a 45-degree angle between the brush
and the gums and teeth.
A small brush is better than a large brush. Gums and
tongue surface should be brushed.
Floss at least once daily.
101. Cont…
Use an antiplaque mouth rinse.
Visit a dentist at least every 6 months, or when you have a
chipped tooth, a lost filling, an oral sore that persists longer
than 2 weeks, or a toothache.
Avoid alcohol and tobacco products, including smokeless
tobacco.
Maintain adequate nutrition and avoid sweets.
Replace toothbrush at first signs of wear, usually every 2
months.
102. Disorders of the Salivary Glands
The salivary glands consist of the parotid glands, one on each side of the
face below the ear; the submandibular and sublingual glands, both in
the floor of the mouth; and the buccal gland, beneath the lips.
About 1200 mL of saliva are produced daily.
The glands’ primary functions are lubrication, protection against
harmful bacteria, and digestion.
103. PAROTITIS
Parotitis(inflammation of the parotid gland) is the most common
inflammatory condition of the salivary glands, although inflammation can
occur in the other salivary glands as well.
Mumps (epidemic parotitis), a communicable disease caused by viral
infection and most commonly affecting children, is an inflammation of a
salivary gland, usually the parotid.
104. Elderly, acutely ill, or debilitated people with decreased salivary flow
from general dehydration or medications are at high risk for parotitis.
The infecting organisms travel from the mouth through the salivary duct.
The organism is usually Staphylococcus aureus (except in mumps).
The onset of this complication is sudden, with an exacerbation of both
the fever and the symptoms of the primary condition.
The gland swells and becomes tense and tender.
The patient feels pain in the ear, and swollen glands interfere with
swallowing.
The swelling increases rapidly, and the overlying skin soon becomes red
and shiny
105. Cont…
Preventive measures are essential and include advising the patient to have
necessary dental work performed before surgery.
In addition, maintaining adequate nutritional and fluid intake, good oral
hygiene, and discontinuing medications (e.g., tranquilizers, diuretics) that can
diminish salivation may help prevent the condition.
If parotitis occurs, antibiotic therapy is necessary.
Analgesics may also be prescribed to control pain.
If antibiotic therapy is not effective, the gland may need to be drained by a
surgical procedure known as parotidectomy.
This procedure may be necessary to treat chronic parotitis.
106. SIALADENITIS
Sialadenitis (inflammation of the salivary glands) may be caused by
dehydration, radiation therapy, stress, malnutrition, salivary gland calculi
(stones), or improper oral hygiene.
The inflammation is associated with infection by S. aureus, Streptococcus
viridans, or pneumococcus.
In hospitalized or institutionalized patients the infecting organism may be
methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) (McQuone, 1999).
Symptoms include pain, swelling, and purulent discharge.
Antibiotics are used to treat infections.
Massage, hydration, and corticosteroids frequently cure the problem.
Chronic sialadenitis with uncontrolled pain is treated by surgical drainage of
the gland or excision of the gland and its duct.
Notas del editor
sympathetic nervous system is a network of nerves that helps your body activate its “fight-or-flight” response..
It could be called your “automatic” nervous system, as it is responsible for many functions that you don’t have to think about to control.
This can include control of your heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, urination and sweating, among other functions.
Your sympathetic nervous system is best known for its role in responding to dangerous or stressful situations.
In response to danger or stress, your sympathetic nervous system may affect your:
Eyes: Enlarge your pupils to let more light in and improve your vision.
Heart: Increase your heart rate to improve the delivery of oxygen to other parts of your body.
Lungs: Relax your airway muscles to improve oxygen delivery to your lungs.
Digestive tract: Slow down your digestion so its energy is diverted to other areas of your body.
Liver: Activate energy stores in your liver to an energy that can be used quickly.
The word “vagus” means wandering in Latin. This is a very appropriate name, as the vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve. It runs from the brain stem to part of the colon.
Motor functions of the vagus nerve include:
stimulating muscles in the pharynx, larynx, and the soft palate, which is the fleshy area near the back of the roof of the mouth
stimulating muscles in the heart, where it helps to lower resting heart rate
stimulating involuntary contractions in the digestive tract, including the esophagus, stomach, and most of the intestines, which allow food to move through the tract
chyme: mixture of food with saliva, salivary enzymes, and gastric secretions that is produced as the food passes through the mouth, esophagus, and stomach