The natural sciences involve studying objects and processes observable in nature, such as biology and physics. The scientific method involves making observations, developing hypotheses, making predictions based on hypotheses, and experimentally testing predictions. A key part of the scientific method is that hypotheses can be proven false through experimentation. While scientific knowledge cannot be absolutely proven true, theories that withstand challenges are considered valid within their domain. The development of science involves imagination to develop theories to explain observations. Scientific progress values expanding knowledge, though some argue there should be regulation of controversial areas.

1. AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCES
Lesson 1: Introducing the Nature and
Methodology of the Natural Sciences
Learning Objectives
 Understand what the term ‘Natural
Sciences’ includes and excludes
 Understand what is meant
by the ‘scientific method’
and what are the
implications for knowledge
claims in the natural
sciences

2. What are the Natural Sciences?
 Natural sciences is defined as “knowledge
of objects or processes observable in
nature, as biology or physics, as
distinguished from the abstract or
theoretical sciences, as mathematics or
philosophy” (Dictionary Reference, 2012)
 Try to list some examples of knowledge
claims in this area of knowledge

3. The achievements of
the natural sciences
 The natural sciences are
considered to be one of the
greatest human achievements
 This is because of their unparalleled capacity to both
explain and make precise predictions;
 For the technological advancements that result from
its applications;
 For the way in which their overall influence has come
to increasingly permeate modern life.
 Any discussion about ‘truth’ or ‘reliable knowledge’
will probably lead to science as providing this kind of
knowledge.

4. So what do we think of most when
considering ‘the sciences’?
For Task 1, complete the following activities,
allowing 20 seconds for each:
Draw a hand
Draw a house
Draw one thing that you think represents
mathematics
Draw one thing that you think represents the
sciences
List as many words as you can that you think
describe a scientist
Bonus challenge: draw a scientist

5. Task 1 – follow up
 Compare your drawings of a hand and a house
with others in the class. Are they similar? If so,
why do you think this is so?
 Compare your drawings for mathematics and the
sciences. Do some images or symbols recur?
What characteristic features of these subjects are
reflected?
 Share your words and final drawing. What
impressions of the scientist emerge? How would
you find out whether your images of the scientist
are accurate or not?

6. Is this what you think of when considering
the sciences?

7. In ToK we examine the nature of science and not
just the subject knowledge that dominates the
school curriculum
 However, the focus clearly remains on the three core
sciences;
 Biology
The study of living organisms and life processes.
 Chemistry
The study of the composition, structure and
properties of matter and its reactions.
 Physics
The study of matter and its motion, of space and
time, forces and energy.

8. What is the scientific method?
“The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it
is comprehensible.” Albert Einstein
Scientists search the physical world for regular and
recurring relationships to describe and explain.
The search for these patterns ranges from the
subatomic world of neutrinos to the entire cosmos
and from the study of inanimate crystals to the study
of living cells.
The scientific method is a highly structured process
that is based around observations, reasoning and
experiments that can be repeated and checked
independently by others
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZaCy5Z87FA

9. Task 2 – The Scientific Card Game
Aim: to figure out the rule!
First, divide the class into groups of 4 or 5, with
each group receiving a pile of 7 or 8 playing cards.
Each group is, in turn, to offer a card which is
either accepted or rejected according to the rule.
A group can guess what the rule is if everyone
agrees!
.

10. Task 2 – continued
After the game, analyse the following:
the way you first spotted a pattern
the way you guessed a possible rule
the way you tested the rule
A specific process is operating here:
Pattern spotting: this links to empirical
observation.
Guessing the rule: this links to the formation
of an inductive hypothesis
Testing the rule: this links to confirming or
falsifying the hypothesis

11. Task 3 – The Scientific Method
Construct a flow diagram in your TOK journal that
illustrates this process using key words such as:
theory, experimental data, prediction, inductive
hypothesis, etc
3. Prediction
1. 2. 4. Theory
and confirmed and
Experimental Inductive experimental
data or hypothesis tentatively
test accepted
Observation
5. Theory is
falsified
(proven false)
and discarded

12. Task 3 - continued
What are the similarities and differences between the
following two flow charts. Compare these charts to
yours.

13. Imagination and creativity in science
American physicist Richard Feynman wrote:
“But what is the source of knowledge? Where do the
laws that are to be tested come from? Experiment
itself helps to produce these laws, in the sense that
it gives us hints. But also needed is imagination to
create from these hints the great generalisations –
to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange
patterns beneath them all, and then to experiment
to check again whether we have made the right
guess.” (Alchin 2006:17)

14. Task 4
Read about the following two claims in Alchin, N
(2006), Theory of Knowledge, Hodder Murray,
p.17-18
1) The Earth is flat
2) The Earth is round
Make notes in your ToK journal in response to the following:
1 Why did ‘claim 1’ become a reasonable scientific belief?
2 What does this indicate about science and truth?
3 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?
4 Why is imagination a necessary component of ‘claim 2’?
5 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?
6 What aspects of this claim could have been falsified (proven
false)?

15. Plenary
What are the natural sciences and what examples
of scientific knowledge claims can you think of?
What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of the
ways of knowing are being used?
What does it mean to ‘test’ or ‘falsify’ scientific
knowledge claims? What does this suggest about
the nature of scientific truth?

16. Homework
Science and Pseudoscience
What is ‘pseudoscience’ and how is it different from
‘science’? How could it be recognised?
Outline the thinking that underlines ONE of the
following and evaluate its essential nature as
science or pseudoscience:
Acupuncture
Astrology
Crystology
Feng Shui
Graphology
Homeopathy
Phrenology

17. AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCES
Lesson 2: Understanding and
Evaluating the Scientific Method
Learning Objectives
 Understand further the way in which
hypotheses are ‘confirmed’ or ‘falsified’,
in the context of examples
 Understand reasons for and evaluate
the regulation of the ‘scientific method’

18. What is the Scientific Method?
Which Way of Knowledge is being used?
3. Prediction
1. 2. 4. Theory
and confirmed and
Experimental Inductive experimental
data or hypothesis tentatively
test accepted
Observation
5. Theory is
falsified
(proven false)
and discarded

19. Task 1 – Science and Pseudoscience
What is ‘pseudocscience’ and how is it different
from ‘science’? How could it be recognised?
Present an outline of the thinking that underlines
ONE of the following and evaluate its essential
nature as science or pseudoscience:
Acupuncture
Astrology
Crystology
Feng Shui
Graphology
Homeopathy
Phrenology

20. Task 1 – follow up
The question here is whether these practices use
the ‘scientific method’ to accumulate knowledge
To what extent do these practices rely on
experiments, observations, data, hypotheses,
predictions, falsification?
To what extent do these practices appear less
scientific because their subject matter is more
complex? What difference is there between
studying atoms or plant and the subject matter
of each of these disciplines?

21. Scientific Truth
What did Physicist David Bohm mean by the following:
“The notion of absolute truth is shown to be in poor
correspondence with the actual development of
science. Scientific truths are better regarded as
relationships holding in some limited domain”
It is crucial to appreciate that a scientific claim can never
be proven experimentally to be correct, although it can
be proven to be wrong. It is commonly assumed
(mistakenly) that scientific laws have been proven and
therefore are absolute truth. It is always possible,
however, that it will be shown to be incomplete or even
totally wrong using the inductive method.

22. Albert Einstein
What did Einstein mean
when he said ‘Truth is
what stands the test of
time’?
The longer a theory has resisted falsification, the
more confident we are that it is right. In this sense,
it is perhaps more meaningful to consider claims as
being ‘scientifically valid’ as opposed to being ‘true’.
Watch the following clip and consider the implications
for the validity of scientific knowledge claims:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOnodvgLpf0&feature=related

23. Scientific Progress
If nature of science is to discover new theories and
knowledge, to what extent should this be free from
values and regulation?

24. Task 2: The Modern
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, Prometheus,
whose name means “foresight” was a
Titan known for his wily intelligence,
who stole fire from Zeus and gave it to
mortals for their use. As punishment,
Prometheus was chained to a rock
where his regenerating liver was eaten
daily by a vulture. His myth has been
treated by a number of ancient sources,
crediting or blaming him for playing a
pivotal role in the early history of
humankind.
As ‘a modern Prometheus’, explore and assess
the regulation of one of these controversial
scientific endeavours:
Designer babies Prometheus released by
Heracles

25. Plenary
What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of
the ways of knowing are being used?
What is the difference between science and
pseudoscience?
What is scientific ‘truth’ and how is this
different to other areas of knowledge such as
mathematics?
What modern controversial scientific
endeavours are there and to what extent
should these be regulated?

26. Homework
Review the notes you have made about the
natural sciences as an area of knowledge. Read
the chapter 2 from Alchin’s book ‘Theory of
Knowledge’, supplementing your notes where
relevant.