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1. Psychopathology
Revision PowerPoint

2. Definitions of abnormality:
Statistical deviation
 Abnormality- behavior that is numerically unusual or rare when plotted on a
standard distribution curve
 Abnormal behavior= behavior at either extreme end of the graph

3. Evaluation of Statistical Deviation
 It doesn't’t distinguish between desirable and non-desirable behaviors e.g. IQ
 Who can judge the boundary between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’
 Cultural relativism- something that is statistically rare in one culture could be
considered normal in another

4. Definitions of abnormality:
Deviation from social norms
 Societies have standards and norms (expected/ appropriate behavior patterns
e.g. queuing)
 This definition argues that a person who acts in a socially deviant way/ breaks
society’s standards= abnormal
 It is based on abnormal behavior being viewed as unpredictable and causing
the observer discomfort/ violates moral standards
 Abnormal thinking is irrational because it differs from common ways of
thought

5. Evaluation of Deviation from social
norms
 Too dependent on context
 Depends on time and culture
 Deviance can be good e.g. not conforming to politically repressive regimes
 Strength- distinguishes desirable and non-desirable behavior & considers
effect on others

6. Definitions of abnormality:
Failure to function adequately
 Being unable to manage everyday life e.g. eating regularly
 Lack of functioning is abnormal if it causes distress to self/ others
 WHODAS used to provide a quantitative measure of functioning

7. Evaluation of Failure to function
adequately
 Distress may be judged subjectively
 Behavior may be functional- e.g. depression may be rewarding for the
individual
 Cultural relativism
 Strength- recognised subjective experience of individual, can be measured
objectively

8. Definitions of abnormality:
Deviation from ideal mental health
 Jahoda identified characteristics commonly used when describing competent
people
 For example, high self-esteem, self-actualization, autononmy, accurate
perception of reality, mastery of the environment

9. Evaluation of Deviation from ideal
mental health
 Unrealistic criteria- may not be useable because it is too ideal
 Views mental and physical health as the same thing- whereas mental
disorders tend not to have physical causes
 Positive approach- a general part of the humanistic approach

10. Mental disorders:
Phobias
 Emotional: excessive fear, anxiety/ panic cued by a specific object or
situation
 Behavioral: avoidance, faint or freeze. Interferes with everyday life.
 Cognitive: not helped by rational argument, unreasonableness of the behavior
is recognised

11. Mental disorders:
Depression
 Emotional: negative emotions- sadness, loss of interest, anger
 Behavioral: reduced or increased activity related to energy levels, sleep or
eating
 Cognitive: Irrational, negative thoughts and self-beliefs that are self-fulfilling

12. Mental disorders
OCD
 Emotional: anxiety and distress, awareness that this is excessive, leading to
shame
 Cognitive: recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions), more
than everyday worries
 Behavioral: compulsive behaviors to reduce obsessive thoughts, not
connected in a realistic way

13. The behavioral approach:
Explaining phobias- Two-process model
The Two-process model
 Classical conditioning- phobia acquired through association between NS and
UCR; NS becomes CS, producing fear
Little Albert (Watson and Rayner)- developed a fear of a white rat which
generalized into a fear of other white furry objects
 Operant conditioning- phobia maintained through negative reinforcement
(avoidance of fear)
 Social Learning- phobic behavior of others modelled

14. Evaluation of the Behavioral approach to
explaining phobias
 Classical conditioning- people often report a specific incident but not always,
may only apply to some types of phobia (Sue et al)
 Diathesis-stress model- not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia (di
Nardo et al) may depend on having a genetic vulnerability for phobias
 Social Learning- fear response acquired through observing reaction to buzzer
(Bandura and Rosenthal)
 Biological preparedness- phobias more likely with ancient fears, conditioning
alone cant explain all phobias (Seligman)
 Two-process model ignores cognitive factors- irrational thinking may explain
social phobias, which are more successfully treated with cognitive methods
(Engels et al)

15. The behavioral approach to treating
phobias: Systematic Desensitization
 Counterconditioning- phobic stimulus associated with new response of
relaxation
 Reciprocal inhibition- the relaxation inhibits the anxiety
 Relaxation- deep breathing, focus on peaceful scene, progressive muscle
relaxation
 Desensitization hierarchy- from least to most fearful, relaxation practiced at
every step

16. Evaluation of SD
 Effectiveness- 75% success (McGrath et al), in vivo techniques may work
better or a combination (Comer)
 Not for all phobias- work less well for ‘ancient fears’ (Ohmen et al)
 Strength- behavioral therapies are fast and require less effort than CBT, can
be self-administered

17. The behavioral approach to treating
phobias: Flooding
 One long session with the most fearful stimulus
 Continues until anxiety subsides and relaxation is complete
 Can be in vivo or virtual reality

18. Evaluation of flooding
 Individual differences- traumatic, and if patients quit it has failed as a
treatment
 Effectiveness- research suggests it may be more effective than SD and quicker
(Choy et al)
 Relaxation may not be necessary- creating a new expectation of copying may
matter more (Klein et al)
 Symptom substitution- a phobia may be a symptom of an underlying problem
(e.g. Little Hans)

19. The cognitive approach:
Explaining Depression
Ellis’ ABC Model (1962)
 Activating event leads to rational or irrational belief, which then leads to
consequences
 Mustabatory thinking (e.g. I must be liked)- causes disappointment and
depression
Beck’s negative triad (1967)
 Negative schema- develops in childhood (e.g. parental rejection), leads to
cognitive biases
 Negative triad- irrational and negative view of self, the world and the future

20. Evaluation of the cognitive approach to
explaining depression
 Support for the role of irrational thinking- depressed people make more errors
in logic (Hammen and Krantz); however, irrational thinking may not cause
depression
 Blames the client and ignores situational factors- recovery may depend on
recognizing environmental factors
 Practical applications to CBT- supports the role of irrational thinking in
depression
 Irrational beliefs may be realistic- depressed people may be realists (Alloy
and Abrahamson)
 Alternative explanation- genes may cause low levels of serotonin,
predisposing people to develop depression

21. The cognitive approach:
Treating Depression
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
 Ellis’ ABCDEF model
 D is for disputing irrational beliefs, e.g. logical, empirical, pragmatic
 E and F for effects of disputing and Feelings that are produced
 Homework- trying out new behaviors to test irrational beliefs
 Behavioral activation- encouraging, re-engagement with pleasurable activities
 Unconditional positive regard- reduces sense of worthlessness

22. Evaluation of the cognitive approach to
treating depression
 Research support- generally successful, Ellis estimated 90% success over 27
sessions. May depend on therapist competence (Kuyken and Tsivrikos).
 Individual differences- CBT not suitable for those with rigid irrational beliefs,
those whose stressors can not be changed and those who don’t want direct
advice
 Behavioral activation- depressed clients in an exercise group had lower
relapse after 6 months (Babyak et al)
 Alternative treatments- drug therapy is much easier in time and effort, can
be used along side CBT
 Dodo bird effect- all treatments equally effective because they share
features, e.g. talking to a sympathetic person (Rosenzweig)

23. The biological approach:
Explaining OCD
Genetic Explanations
 COMPT gene- one allele more common in OCD, creates high levels of dopamine (Tukel et al)
 SERT gene- one allele more common in a family with OCD, creates low levels of serotonin
(Ozaki et al)
 Diathesis-stress- same genes linked to other disorders or no disorder at all, therefore genes
create a vulnerability
Neural Explanations
 Dopamine levels high in OCD- linked to compulsive behavior in animal studies (Szechtman et
al)
 Serotonin levels low in OCD- antidepressants that increase serotonin most effective
 Worry circuit- damaged caudate nucleus doesn’t suppress worry signals from the OFC to
thalamus
 Serotonin and dopamine linked to activity in these parts of the frontal lobe

24. Evaluation of the biological approach to
explaining OCD
 Studies of first- degree relatives- 5 times greater risk of OCD if relative has OCD (Nestadt et
al)
 Twin studies- twice as likely to have OCD if MZ twins (Billett et al)
 Environmental component- concordance rates never 100%, type of OCD is not inherited
 Genes are not specific to OCD- also linked to Tourette’s, autism, anorexia i.e. obsessive- type
behavior
 Research support for genes and OFC- OCD patients and family members (genetic link) more
likely to have reduced grey matter in OFC (Menzies et al)
 Real world application- genes may be blocked or modified, genetic explanations lull people
into thinking there are simple solutions
 Alternative explanations- relevance of two-process model supported by success of SD-like
therapy called ERP (Albucher et al)

25. The biological approach:
Treating OCD
Drug Therapy
 Antidepressants increase serotonin
 SSRIs- prevent the reuptake of serotonin by pre-synaptic neuron
 Tricyclic’s- block re-uptake noradrenaline and serotonin but have more severe
side effects, so are second choice treatment
 Anti-anxiety drugs- BZs enhance GABA, a neurotransmitter that slows down
the nervous system
 D-Cycloserine- reduces anxiety (Kushner et al)

26. Evaluation of the biological approach to
treating OCD
 Effectiveness- SSRIs better than placebo over short term
 Drug therapies are preferred- less time and effort than CBT, and may benefit
from interaction with a caring doctor
 Side effects- not so severe with SSRIs (e.g. insomnia), more severe with
tricyclic’s (e.g. hallucination) and BZs (e.g. addiction)
 Not a lasting cure- patients relapse when treatment stops, CBT may be
preferable
 Publication bias- more studies with positive results published which may bias
doctor preferences