Types of Walls (Brick, Concrete Block & Stone Walls) The main objective of this project is to assess the contribution of nonstructural masonry walls to the safety of buildings after an unforeseeable event and the definition of procedures to enhance this contribution

1. Page 1
Salahaddin University-Erbil
College of Engineering
Geomatics(Surveying)Department
Types of Walls (Brick, Concrete
Block & Stone Walls)
Student Name: Copyright
Supervisor: Dr.Kamaran Kakil Hamad
Class: 4th
stage
Course Title: Elective Subject
Academic year_ 2019-2020

2. Page 2
Abstract
The main objective of this project is to assess the contribution of non-
structural masonry walls to the safety of buildings after an unforeseeable
event and the definition of procedures to enhance this contribution.
Although the knowledge in structural engineering has advanced
enormously in the last decades, structural collapses still occur with
significant frequency. These are, in general, a consequence of unexpected
loading, design and construction errors or harmful human actions.
Reducing the susceptibility of structures to these unforeseeable events is a
key aspect in increasing safety in civil engineering structures. Intensive
research has focused on these aspects in the last decade, and it is now
clear that a general approachto robustness must be based on risk analysis.
However, it is also clear that less complex formulations must be defined
for particular structural typologies, in order to be applicable in current
design.
In Portugal, buildings are traditionally erected using a reinforced concrete
frame, complemented by reinforced concrete walls, and using non-
structural walls built with clay or concrete blocks masonry. In this
project, this common building typology is studied from a robustness
viewpoint, aiming at defining simple robustness indicators and mitigation
solutions specific for these structures.
Recent examples of near collapses in Portugal showed that the non-
structural walls can, under extreme events, sustain significant loads,
preventing collapse and allowing evacuation and repair. Although
significant damage occurred in these cases, no casualties were registered,
and the buildings could be used after repair.
To assess the importance of walls in robustness as well as the condition
under which such contribution can be considered, different wall panels,
composed of masonry walls and reinforced concrete frames, will be
analyzed experimentally, to assess their joint performance and its
dependence on materials (clay bricks vs. concrete bricks), geometry and
continuity between masonry and reinforced concrete frame. Particular
attention will be paid to the quality of workmanship on the properties of
wall, as the existence of gaps between bricks and between bricks and

3. Page 3
frame and poor brick arrangement can severely limit the ability of these
elements in improving robustness.
Based on the properties of the wall defined experimentally, risk
assessment of several typical buildings, considering different non-
structural walls, under extreme events, will be performed. The risk
analysis will be based on reliability analysis considering an initial damage
(modeled through removal of a key-element), considering the non-linear
behavior of all components of the structure.
This analysis will give clear indications on the improvement in robustness
resulting from the use of non-structural masonry walls, as well as,
indicate possible methods to enhance robustness of existing structures.
The second phase of the project focus on the use of recycled aggregates
concrete blocks (RACB) walls for improving robustness. The advantages
of this solution are: competitive cost, higher sustainability and capacity to
increase resistance through the use of ladder reinforcement. The analysis
of advantages of this solution will be performed using the same procedure
defined for traditional walls. The comparison of results will show the
effectiveness and cost efficiency of this solution.
The final step of the project is the development of a guideline on the
structural robustness assessment of reinforced concrete buildings with
masonry infill, including assessment simplified rules and enhancement
procedures for both new and existing structures. At the end of the project,
a seminar oining national and international experts will be organized, in
order to transpose the obtained knowledge to the community.
The team involved in this project involves experienced researchers in
reliability and robustness analysis, strengthening of reinforced concrete
structures, recycled aggregated concrete, and experimental analysis of
reinforced concrete structures. The two invited consultants are renowned
experts on risk assessment and robustness analysis and on recycled
aggregate concrete, respectively.

4. Page 4
Table of Content
Subject Page
Title of Raport……………………………………………..... 1
Abstract…………………………………………………….... 2
Table of Content…………………………………………… 4
Introduction………………………………………………… 5
Background & Review…………………………………….. 8
 Ancient Walls of Mesopotamia……………………. 8
 Walls in Homes and Cities…………………………. 10
Methods……………………………………………………. 11
Theory(Design)……………………………………………. 13
Conclusion………………………………………………..... 19
Reference…………………………………………………. 20

5. Page 5
Introduction
Methods for constructing walls for buildings. Walls are constructed in
different forms and of various materials to serve several functions.
Exterior walls protect the building interior from external environmental
effects such as heat and cold, sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, rain and
snow, and sound, while containing desirable interior environmental
conditions. Walls are also designed to provide resistance to passage of
fire for some defined period of time, such as a one-hour wall. Walls often
contain doors and windows, which provide for controlled passage of
environmental factors and people through the wall line.
Walls are designed to be strong enough to safely resist the horizontal and
vertical forces imposed upon them, as defined by building codes. Such
loads include wind forces, self-weight, possibly the weights of walls and
floors from above, the effects of expansion and contraction as generated
by temperature and humidity variations as well as by certain impacts, and
the wear and tear of interior occupancy. See Loads, dynamic, Loads,
transverse Modern building walls may be designed to serve as either
bearing walls or curtain walls or as a combination of both in response to
the design requirements of the building as a whole. Both types may
appear similar when complete, but their sequence of construction is
usually different.
Bearing-wall construction may be masonry, cast-in-place or precast
reinforced concrete, studs and sheathing, and composite types. The design
loads in bearing walls are the vertical loading from above, plus horizontal
loads, both perpendicular and parallel to the wall plane. Bearing walls
must be erected before supported building components above can be
erected.
Curtain-wall construction takes several forms, including lighter versions
of those used for bearing walls. These walls can also comprise assemblies
of corrugated metal sheets, glass panels, or ceramic-coated metal panels,
each laterally supported by light subframing members. The curtain wall
can be erected after the building frame is completed, since it receives
vertical support by spandrel beams, or relieving angles, at the wall
line.Masonry walls are a traditional, common, and durable form of wall
construction used in both bearing and curtain walls. They are designed in

6. Page 6
accordance with building codes and are constructed by individual
placement of bricks, blocks of stone, cinder concrete, cut stone, or
combinations of these. The units are bonded together by mortar. See
Concrete, Masonry, Mortar Reinforced concrete walls are used for both
strength and esthetic purposes. Such walls may be cast in place or precast,
and they may be bearing or curtain walls. Some precast concrete walls are
constructed of tee-shaped or rectangular prestressed concrete beams,
which are more commonly used for floor or roof deck construction. They
are placed vertically, side by side, and caulked at adjacent edges. See
Concrete beam, Reinforced concrete Stud and sheathing walls are a light
type of wall construction, commonly used in residential or other light
construction where they usually serve as light bearing walls. They usually
consist of wood sheathing nailed to wood or steel studs, usually with the
dimensions 2 × 4 in. (5 × 10 cm) or 2 × 6 in. (5 × 15 cm), and spaced at
16 in. (40 cm) or 24 in. (60 cm) on center—all common building module
dimensions. The interior sides of the studs are usually covered with an
attached facing material. This is often sheetrock, which is a sandwich of
gypsum between cardboard facings. Composite walls are essentially a
more substantial form of stud walls. They are constructed of cementitious
materials, such as weatherproof sheetrock or precast concrete as an
exterior sheathing, and sheetrock as an interior surface finish. See Precast
concrete
Prefabricated walls are commonly used for curtain-wall construction and
are frequently known as prefab walls. Prefabricated walls are usually
made of corrugated steel or aluminum sheets, although they are
sometimes constructed of fiber-reinforced plastic sheets, fastened to light
horizontal beams (girts) spaced several feet apart. Prefab walls are often
made of sandwich construction: outside corrugated sheets, an inside liner
of flat or corrugated sheet, and an enclosed insulation are fastened
together by screws to form a thin, effective sandwich wall. These usually
have tongue-and-groove vertical edges to permit sealed joints when the
units are erected at the building site by being fastened to framing girts.
Glass, metal, or ceramic-coated metal panel walls are a common type of
curtain wall used in high-rise construction. They are typically assembled
as a sandwich by using glass, formed metal, or ceramic-coated metal

7. Page 7
sheets on the outside, and some form of liner, including possibly
masonry, on the inside; insulation is enclosed.
Tilt-up walls are sometimes used for construction efficiency. Here, a wall
of any of the various types is fabricated in a horizontal position at ground
level, and it is then tilted up and connected at its edges to adjacent tilt-up
wall sections. Interior partitions are a lighter form of wall used to separate
interior areas in buildings. They are usually nonbearing, constructed as
thinner versions of some of the standard wall types; and they are often
designed for some resistance to fire and sound. Retaining walls are used
as exterior walls of basements to resist outside soil pressure. They are
usually of reinforced concrete; however, where the basement depth or
exterior soil height is low, the wall may be constructed as a masonry wall.
See Buildings, Retaining wall, Structural materials
Fig.(1)Stone Wall Fig.(2)Block Wall
Fig.(3).Break Wall

8. Page 8
Background & Review
The English word 'wall' is derived from the Latin, vallus meaning 'a stake'
or 'post' and designated the wood-stake and earth palisade which formed
the outer edge of a fortification. The palisades were in use early on and
are mentioned by Homer in the 8th century BCE and later by the Greek
historian Polybius (c 200-118 BCE) and the Chinese historian Sima Qian
(145-86 BCE) among others. Walls have traditionally been built for
defense, privacy, and to protect the people of a certain region from the
influence or perceived danger posed by outsiders.
Walls of different cultures all served this same primary purpose but were
constructed in various ways using diverse materials depending on the
culture and the time period. Walls in ancient Mesopotamia were sun-
dried mud-brick, as they were in rural areas of ancient Egypt. Walls
around sacred or ceremonial sites in Egypt were eventually made of
stone. Work in stone was also practiced by the Greeks and famously by
the Romans, best exemplified in Hadrian's Wall in modern-day Scotland,
which was constructed starting in 122 CE. From the time of the Roman
Empire onwards, stone was the material of choice in wall-building up
through the modern era .
Ancient Walls of Mesopotamia
The oldest walls found in existence so far are those of the temple of
Gobekli Tepe in Urfa, southeast Turkey which date to 11,500 years ago.
City walls, which became common for purposes of defense, are first seen
around the city of Jericho (now in the West Bank) around the 10th
century BCE and the Sumerian city of Uruk which was founded
somewhat later (though both cities lay claim to the honor of `first city in
the world'). The walls of Uruk were thought to have been built by the
great king Gilgamesh upon which he inscribed his heroic deeds which
formed the basis for the later epic he is most famous for.
Walls began to rise around cities throughout Mesopotamia shortly after
urbanization began in the region c.4500 BCE. City walls were
constructed to include gates and watchtowers and usually a ditch running
around the outer perimeter of the wall which could be filled with water.
King Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750 BCE) surrounded his city of Babylon

9. Page 9
with more impressive walls than usually seen shortly after he assumed the
throne in 1792 BCE, but the credit for transforming the city of Babylon
into an awe-inspiring wonder belongs to King Nebuchadnezzar II.
Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE) built three walls around Babylon at
heights of forty feet and so broad at the top that chariots could race
around them. The Ishtar Gate in the wall of Nebuchadnezzar II’s Babylon
was claimed by some to be greater than any of the listed Wonders of the
Ancient World. The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that "Babylon
surpasses in wonder any city in the known world" and specifically praised
the walls which he said were 56 miles (90 kilometres) long, 80 feet (24
metres) thick, and 320 feet (97 metres) high. Although it is generally
believed that Herodotus exaggerated the majesty of Babylon, other
ancient writers have also noted the magnificence of the walls.
Fig.(4)The great wall of china in snow .

10. Page 10
Walls in Homes and Cities
The Neolithic village of Banpo in China (inhabited c. 4500-3750 BCE)
consisted of stone-walled circular houses supported by timber with
thatched roofing while the village of Skara Brae (in Orkney, Scotland)
was built in 3100 BCE with walls and houses of stone to protect people
from the elements and provide privacy. Interestingly, both villages are
similar in construction. The basic form of these villages, and the use of
walls, continues along the same lines in other cultures .
In ancient Egypt most private homes had walled courtyards to help deter
robbers or simply unwanted and uninvited neighbors (papyrus scrolls and
tomb inscriptions relate that human beings could be as insufferably
annoying to each other in ancient times as they are now). Every city in
ancient Egypt was walled and each of the great palaces had elaborate
painted walls for the purpose of defense, but also for ornamentation.
This same building pattern held true in ancient Greece where citizens of
Athens built small decorative walls around their courtyards and patios.
The Athenians also surrounded their city with thick walls which lasted
until the end of the Peloponnesian Wars with Sparta when the victorious
Spartans had them torn down. Also of note in Athens were the Long
Walls which were two parallel stone structures which ran from the
Acropolis down to the port of Piraeus and protected the center of the city.
The walls of the fabled city of Troy from Homer's Iliad were uncovered
by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann during excavations between
1871-1874 CE and served this same defensive purpose. The fortifications
of the Chinese city of Xi'an (built c. 194 BCE) were also constructed for
defense and lasted four years before falling. The modern day walls of
Xi'an, like the Great Wall of China, was re-built and restored by the Ming
Dynasty.
Fig.(5)south tower,Tiryns.

11. Page 11
Methods
Block wall can be built with different types of bond as shown below:
According to the method of bond, brick walls can be classified as:

12. Page 12

13. Page 13
Theory(Design)
Concrete block masonry which is also known as concrete masonry unit
(CMU) have advantages over brick and stone masonry. Concrete blocks
are manufactured in required shape and sizes and these may be solid or
hollow blocks. The common size of concrete blocks is 39cm x 19cm x
(30cm or 20 cm or 10cm) or 2 inch, 4 inch, 6 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch and
12-inch unit configurations.
Cement, aggregate, water is used to prepare concrete blocks. The cement-
aggregate ratio in concrete blocks is 1:6. Aggregate used is of 60% fine
aggregate and 40% coarseaggregate. Their Minimum strength is about
3N/mm2
. ASTM C-90-91 specifies the compressive strength requirements
of concrete masonry units.
Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry Units
Depending upon the structure, shape, size and manufacturing processes
concrete blocks are mainly classified into 2 types and they are
 Solid concrete blocks
 Hollow concrete Blocks
Solid Concrete Blocks
Solid concrete blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and
manufactured from dense aggregate. They are very strong and provides
good stability to the structures. So for large work of masonry like for load
bearing walls these solid blocks are preferable. They are available in large
sizes compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct concrete
masonry than brick masonry.
Fig.(6) Solid Concrete Blocks

14. Page 14
Hollow Concrete Blocks
Hollow concrete blocks contains void area greater than 25% of gross
area. Solid area of hollow bricks should be more than 50%. The hollow
part may be divided into several components based on our requirement.
They are manufactured from lightweight aggregates. They are light
weight blocks and easy to install.
Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks:
 Stretcher block
 Corner block
 Pillar block
 Jamb block
 Partition block
 Lintel block
 Frogged brick block
 Bull nose block
Concrete Stretcher Blocks Concrete Corner Blocks Concrete Pillar Blocks
Jamb Concrete Blocks Partition Concrete Block

15. Page 15
Types of Natural Stone Walls
Here at Concord Stoneworks one of our favorite projects are natural stone
walls. There are a variety of different methods of building a natural stone
wall with a variety of different materials. Because of this, each wall is a
bit different and a poses a new and interesting project for us to take on.
Fieldstone Walls Pennsylvania Fieldstone Wall
Colonial Wallstone Antique Granite Wallstone
Split Face/Mosiac Wall Veneer Wall Modular Block Wall

16. Page 16
Types of Bricks used in Masonry Construction
Based on the manufacturing process,bricks are broadly classified into
two types,
 Sun-Dried or unburnt bricks
 Burnt bricks
1.Sun-Dried or Unburnt Clay Bricks
Sun-dried or unburnt bricks are less durable and these are used for
temporary structures. Unburnt bricks preparation involved in 3 steps they
are preparation of clay, molding and drying.
After molding, bricks are subjected to sunlight and dried using heat from
sun. So, they are not that much strong and they also have less water
resistance and less fire resistance. These bricks are not suitable for
permanent structures.
Sun-Dried or Unburnt Clay Bricks
2. Burnt Clay Bricks
Burnt bricks are good quality bricks but however they also consist some
defected bricks. So, burnt bricks are classified into four types and they are
 First class bricks
 Second class bricks
 Third class bricks
 Fourth class bricks

17. Page 17
First Class Bricks
First class bricks are good quality
bricks compared to other classes.
Second Class Bricks
Second class bricks are moderate
quality bricks and they are molded
by ground-molding process.
Third Class Bricks
Third class bricks are poor quality
bricks which are generally used for
temporary structures like unburnt bricks.
Fourth Class Bricks
Fourth class bricks are very poor
quality bricks and these are not
used as bricks in the structure.
3. Fly Ash Bricks
Fly ash bricks are manufactured
using fly ash and water.

18. Page 18
4. Concrete Bricks
Concrete bricks are manufacturing
using concrete with ingredients as cement,
sand, coarse aggregates and water.
5. Engineering Bricks
Engineering bricks have high compressive
strength and are used special applications
where strength, frost resistance,
acid resistance, low porosity is required.
6. Sand Lime or Calcium Silicate Bricks
Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand
and lime and popularly known as sand lime bricks.

19. Page 19
Conclusion
Walls, as noted, have always served the same basic purpose and, at the
same time, have always shared the same weakness: anyone who really
wants to get around a wall will find a way to tunnel under, go over, or
walk around one. The Great Wall of China was initially useless in
stopping the nomadic cavalry of the Xiongnu and only became the
formidable structure it is today many centuries later. As noted, Shulgi of
Ur's wall was easily breached by the Elamites simply walking around it
and Hadrian's Wall did little to stop illegal immigration as evidenced by
Caledonian artifacts found amidst Roman pieces, suggesting Pictish
merchants trading with (or bribing) Roman soldiers.
No matter how pointless a wall might be in terms of defense or limiting
access of `the other' to one's lands, walls have continued to be built, and
often fortified, since Roman times in an effort to make the populace feel
more secure. Like Hadrian's Wall, walls in general are symbolic in
marking one's spaceas one's own and limiting access to others, by way of
a physical statement, in order to feel more secure. It has never seemed to
occur to people that what they are walling out might be more beneficial
than harmful to them in the long run but human beings are notoriously
short-sighted and largely fear-motivated and so it is almost a certainty
that walls will continue to be built, separating nation from nation and
neighbor from neighbor, on into the future without end.

20. Page 20
References….
 Building Design and Construction Handbook by FREDERICK S.
MERRITT&JONATHAN T. RICKETTS.
 Concrete Technology (Theory and Practice) by M.S.SHETTY –New
Delhi India2010.
 https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-bricks-identification-
properties-uses/12730/
 https://www.ancient.eu/wall/
 https://theconstructor.org/building/types-concrete-blocks-masonry-
units/12752/
 https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Wall+construction
 https://sites.fct.unl.pt/robustbrick/pages/abstract