The document provides an overview of major developments in European contexts, philosophy, science, and the arts from the late 19th century through the early 20th century. It summarizes that industrialization led to increased migration, the rise of the working class and socialism, while Germany unified and became a powerful nation. Major scientific discoveries were made in physics by Planck, Einstein, and Bohr, and in biology by Mendel and Pasteur. Philosophically, Nietzsche challenged traditional morality and Freud developed psychoanalysis. In the arts, Realism and Impressionism emerged before Post-Impressionism, Cubism, Futurism, and other modernist movements that rejected realism and naturalism.

1. REALISM,
IMPRESSIONISM
AND
BEYOND

2. CONTEXTS AND CONCEPTS
CONTEXTS
EUROPEAN MIGRATION
 Toward the end of 19th
Century the pace quickens.
 Europe’s population starts migrating to North America, Latin
America, Siberia, South Africa, and Australia.
 By 1900 the European population outside of Europe
numbered 560 million, representing more than 1/3 of the
world’s entire population.
 Industrial and technological revolution continues
 Workers strive for greater rights and rewards
 Nationalism rises
 Psychology and philosophy influence the arts

3. WORKERS AND SOCIALISM
Working class was the result of industrialization.
The organization of the working class took place in three stages:
 1864 – 1893 dominated by powerful popular movements and
brutally repressed mass strikes.
 1893-1905 characterized by the rise of unions and the emergence
of nation-states of political parties.
 1905-to World War I included a general expansion of the labor
and socialist movements.
In 1864 the International Working Men’s Association was founded in
London.
The movement was intended to have an international scope.
By 1869 the movement became fragmented into national groups.
The movement revolved around unions and political parties.
The socialist ideals continued to spread through the organization of
the Second International in 1889-1891 that was a loose federation of
organizations.

4. THE GERMAN REICH
Germany was a series of independent states.
On January 18, 1871, twenty five German states united forming the
German Reich (State) with William I, as Kaiser.
Bismark, the prime minister began a campaign of secularization of
religion. But he did not succeed.
German industrial expansion continued despite economic problems
in Europe.
The country became more and more urban.
The population grew fast.
Agriculture was modernized.
Germany became the second most powerful nation in the world.
The socialist influence increased.
The Social Democratic Party became the largest group in the
Reichstag.

5. A SCIENTIFIC EXPLOSION
Physics
 Max Plank (1858-1947) guessed that radiation did not occur in
continuous fashion but in small discrete units.
 Building on Plank’s theory, Albert Einstein (1875-1955) explained in
1905 the photoelectric effect, by showing that light moves by
quanta (tiny particles of light, later called photons).
 Nils Bohr (1885-1962) used this quantum theory to build a model of
an atom, in 1911, describing the movement of electrons within an
atom.
 In September 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays
(electromagnetic waves with very short wavelengths that pass
through material that is normally opaque to light). This discovery
earned Röntgen a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901.

6. Biology
 The botanist Gregor Johan Mendel (1822-1884) demonstrated that
hereditary characteristics are transmitted via distinct elements that
today we call genes.
 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), explained the process of fermentation
as the result of the action of microscopic living organisms.
 Pasteur studied bacteria (he started the field of bacteriology.
 In 1907 the in vitro cultivation was invented (a method in which a
living organism is sustained outside of its natural environment).

7. NIESZCHEAN PHILOSPHY
 Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher of the late 19th
century who challenged the foundations of traditional morality and
Christianity.
 He believed in life, creativity, health, and the realities of the world
we live in, rather than those situated in a world beyond.
 Central to Nietzsche's philosophy is the idea of "life-affirmation,"
which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain
life's energies, however socially prevalent those views might be.
 Often referred to as one of the first "existentialist" philosophers,
Nietzsche has inspired leading figures in all walks of cultural life,
including dancers, poets, novelists, painters, psychologists,
philosophers, sociologists and social revolutionaries.
 From 1880 until his collapse in January 1889, Nietzsche led a
wandering, gypsy-like existence as a "stateless" person (having
given up his German citizenship, and not having acquired Swiss
citizenship), circling almost annually between his mother's house
in Naumburg and various French, Swiss, German and Italian cities.

8.  Later, during the 1930's, aspects of Nietzsche's thought were used
by the Nazis and Italian Fascists, partly due to the encouragement
of Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche through her solicitations with Adolf
Hitler and Benito Mussolini.
 It was possible for the Nazi interpreters to assemble, quite
selectively, various passages from Nietzsche's writings whose
juxtaposition appeared to justify war, aggression and domination
for the sake of nationalistic and racial self-glorification

9. SIGMUND FREUD
 Sigmund Freud, physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and
father of psychoanalysis, is generally recognized as one of the
most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century.
 Freud's most important and frequently re-iterated claim, that with
psychoanalysis he had invented a new science of the mind,
remains the subject of much critical debate and controversy.
 In fact, the controversy which exists in relation to Freud is more
heated and multi-faceted than that relating to virtually any other
recent thinker with criticisms ranging from the contention that
Freud's theory was generated by logical confusions arising out of
his alleged long-standing addiction to cocaine

10. CONCEPTS
AESTHETICISM
 Aestheticism, characterized by the concept of “art of art’s sake”,
was a reaction to Victorian notion that art must have artistic,
educational, or “socially and morally uplifting characteristics”.
 Aestheticists were in pursuit of “perfect beauty and life”
FUNCTIONALISM
 Sociologists Herbert Spencer ( 1820 – 1903) and Emile Durkheim
(1858 – 1917) describes society as a “interrelated organism, each
of whose elements contributed to the stability and survival of the
whole”.

11. THE ARTS FROM REALISM TO MODERNISM
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
 This covers the period between 1850 and 1914 (WWI)
REALISM
 Realism appears after the 1848 French revolution
 It expresses both, a taste for democracy and a reaction against
romanticism. Yet, inspite of its social inclinations it produces no
new style in architecture and only inspires a few valuable
sculptures.
 Realism rejects imaginative idealization in favour of a close
observation of outward appearances, the accurate, detailed,
unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary life.
 Realism ran through 1840, 1850, 1860.

12. REALISM
The style known as Realism encompassed the period between 1840s
and 1860s.
The folllwing artists were major contributors innovators during this
period:
 Courbet, Gustave
 Jean Francois Millet
 Jean Honoré Daumier
 Edward Manet

13. Gustave Courbet, The Stone Breakers, 1849.
Oil on canvas. 5ft x 8ft.

14. Jean-François Millet,
Woman Baking
Bread, 1853-1854

15. Edouard Manet, Déjeuner sur l’herbe, 1863. Oil on
canvas.

16. Honoré Daumier, The Third-Class Carriage, c. 1862.
Oil on canvas.

17. IMPRESSIONISM
 Impressionism is a light, spontaneous manner of painting which
began in France as a reaction against the formalism of the
dominant academic style.
 The movement's name came from Monet's early work, Impression:
Sunrise, which was singled out for criticism by Louis Leroy on its
exhibition.
 The hallmark of the style is the attempt to capture the subjective
impression of light in a scene.
 The style emerged in competition with the newly invented
technology of the camera
 The camera is compared with the eye.
 The eye is just the lens. The visual information is processed by the
brain. Consequently it is a more complicated process.
 The impressionists emphasized the colors in the shadows.
 They are very sensitive to technological developments and the
impact on environment and humans. (trains Monet’s early
paintings)

18. Claude Monet, On the Seine at Bennecourt, 1868.
Oil on canvas. 31” x 39”

19. Berthe Morisot,
In the Dining Room,
1886. Oil on canvas.

20. Mary Cassat, The Child’s
Bath, 1891.
Oil on canvas. 39” x 26”.

21. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette, 1876. Oil
on canvas. 4ft x 5ft 9”

22. Auguste Rodin, The Burghers of Calais,
1866. Bronze. 6ft 10” high.

23. POST-IMPRESSIONISM
 Post-Impressionism is an umbrella term used to describe a variety
of artists who were influenced by Impressionism but took their art
in different directions.
 There is no single well-defined style of Post-Impressionism, but in
general it is less casual and more emotionally charged than
Impressionist work.
 Georges Seurat
 Paul Cezane
 Paul Gauguin
 Vincent van Gogh

24. Georges Seurat, A Sunday Afternoon on the Islan of La
Grande Jatte, 1884-6. Oil on canvas.

25. Paul Cézanne, Mont Saint-Victoire seen from Les
Lauves, 1902-04. Oil on canvas.

26. Paul Gauguin, La Orana
Maria, c.1891-2. Oil on
canvas.

27. Vincent van Gogh, Harvest at La Crau, 1888.
Oil on canvas.

28. Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night.
Oil on canvas.

29. CUBISM
 Cubism was an early 20th
-century revolutionary art movement that
employed concurrent multi points perspective, geometric shapes
to represent reality.
 Cubism was invented by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque
around 19007-08.
 Cubism was the most influential art movement of the twntieth
century.

30. Pablo Picasso, Les
Demoiselles D’Avignon, 1907. Oil on
canvas.

31. Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937. Oil on canvas.

32. MECHANISM AND FUTURISM
 Futurism is an Italian modernist movement celebrating the
technological era.
 It was largely inspired by the development of Cubism.
 The core themes of Futurist thought and art were machines and
motion.
 Futurism was founded in 1909 by
 Filippo Tommaso Marinetti along with artists
 Giacomo Balla
 Umberto Boccioni
 Carlo Carà
 Gino Severini

33. Marcel Duchamp,
Nude Descending a Staircase,
NO 2, 1912.
Oil on canvas.

34. Umberto Boccioni, Unique
Forms of Continuity in Space,
1913. Bronze (cast 1921)

35. EXPRESSIONISM
German art movement (1905 –
1930) in which the aim was for
the artwork to elicit the same
emotions in the viewer that the
artist felt when s/he created it.
Eduard Munch.
The Scream. 1893
Mixed media. 36” x 28”
National Gallery and Munch
Museum, Oslo, Norway

36. FAUVISM
Is a style of painting
that employs vivid non-
naturalistic use of
color.
It flourished in Paris
around 1905. The style
had a significant
influence on the
German expressionists.
Henri Matisse.
Blue Nude. 1907. Oil on
canvas. 36” x 48”
Baltimore Museum of
Art

37. Vasily Kandinsky,
Improvisation No. 30
Oil on canvas. 43” x 43”
Art Institute of Chicago