Physical Pharmacy Lecture 2

Virtual Physical Pharmacy Lecture Series
Muhammad Muneeb (D16M137; PUCP)
PHARMACEUTICS-I (PHYSICAL PHARMACY):
Unit 2.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PHARMACY
Outline:
 A survey of the history of pharmacy through ancient, Greek and Arab periods with special reference
to contribution of Muslim scientists to pharmacy and allied sciences.
 An introduction of various official books.
Muhammad Muneeb
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Disease is not an old as life itself as evidence exist that it can be traced back to around 350 million –
280 million years (Carboniferous Period). It has been desire of mankind since times immemorial to be healthy
and cure sickness and disease. The quest for health has paved way for stimulating the element of search for
cure. Pharmacy is the art of healing and treatment exists from the time illness was recognized.
Before The Dawn of History:
 From beginnings as remote and simple as these came the proud profession of pharmacy. It’s
development parallels that of man.
 Among the several characteristics unique to Homo Sapiens is our propensity to treat ailments, physical
and mental with medicines.
 Ancient man learned from instinct, from observation of birds and beasts. Cool water, a leaf, dirt or
mud was his first soothing application.
 By trial, he learned which served him best. Eventually he applied his knowledge for the benefit of
others.
Pharmacy Roots:
 The study of pharmacy can be tracked back to 700 years.
 It was evolved between stone age and down of history (Proto History) systems existed that were later
discovered by Archeologists.
 Peasant civilizations (5000 B.C.) – excavations in Tigris and Euphrates valley.
 Around 2000 B.C. some documents of Assyrio were revealed.
 This art has evolved over centuries. It passes through religion, magic, incantation and now it is evolved
highly special profession of Pharmacy.
Pre-Historic Pharmacy:
 Since humanities earliest past, Pharmacy has been a part of everyday life. Some of mankind’s oldest
settlements such as Shanidar support the contention that pre-historic people gathered plants for
medicinal purposes. By trial and error, the knowledge of the healing properties of certain natural
substances grew.

 When healers at shanidar or other prehistoric settlements approached disease, they placed it within
the context of their general understanding of the world around them, which was alive with good and
evil spirits. The magical portions for curing were part of the duty of the Shaman (usually incharge of
all or most things supernatural in tribe).
 The Shaman diagnosed and treated most serious illnesses. He compounded the remedies needed to
keep away the influences of evil spells or spirits.
Eras in History of Pharmacy:
I. Ancient Era - Beginning of time to 1600 A.D.
II. Empiric Era - 1600 to 1940 A.D.
III. Industrialization Era - 1940 to 1970 A.D.
IV. Patient Care Era - 1970 to Present
V. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
I. ANCIENT ERA:
 It started from beginning of time to 1600 A.D.
 Early man used material in his surroundings; leaves, mud and cool water were used to stop bleeding
and heal wounds.
 Dry clay was used to splint broken bones.
 They copied animal behavior.
 The signs of pre-historic and primitive times diseases exist as it is evident from:
o Skeleton with deformed joints
o Tumors in dinosaurs
o Exhumed bones indicated performance of operation after injury
DOCUMENTATION:
 At some point man began to document healing practices on clay tablets 2600 B.C.
 One of the earliest known records written around 1500 B.C. was the Ebers Papyrus named by George
Ebers.
EGYPTIAN TIMES:
 When organized settlements aroused in the great fertile valley of Nile and the Indus River, changes
occurred that gradually influenced the concepts of disease and healing.
BABYLONIANS:
They were 5th
millennium BC peasants and they were the civilization of Western Asia. Excavations of
Tigris and Euphrates valleys revealed Medical tablets originating from 3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. Babylonians
had a detailed medical system and used a pharmacopoeia containing 250 plants, sulphur, animal products like
cow or goat milk, honey, wax, lion fat, castor oil etc. For the Babylonians, medical care was provided by two
classes of practioners:
 The asipu (magical healer)
o The asipu relied more heavily on spells and magical stones far more than plant materials.
 The asu (empirical healer)

o The asu drew upon a large collection of drugs and manipulated them into several dosage forms
that are still basic today such as suppositories, pills and ointments.
The asipu and asu were not in direct competition and sometimes cooperated on difficult cases.
DAYS OF PAPYRUS EBERS:
 Though Egyptian medicine dates from about 2900 B.C, best known and most important
Pharmaceutical record is the “Papyrus Ebers” (1600 B.C), a collection of 800 prescriptions
mentioning 700 drugs. The drugs are chiefly botanical although mineral and animal drugs are also
noted.
 Such botanical substances as acacia, castor bean and fennel are mentioned along with apparent
references to such minerals as iron oxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and sulfur.
GREEK CIVILIZATION:
 During the millennium that followed the roots of modern medical profession in the west arouse from
Greek civilization.
 Around 600 B.C. the Greeks integrated science into mythological thinking.
 They began thinking logically about disease rather than believing spiritual explanation.
 The Romans conquered the Greeks and the medical and pharmaceutical cultures mixed, it is known as
Greco-Roman Era.
GREECE AND ROMAN ERA:
 The poems of Homer (Great poet of ancient Greece – 8th
century B.C.) and mythological tales provide
information on the existence of the art of pharmacy.
o Bitter root powder used to treat heal wounds.
o Use of sulphur as disinfectant.
 Peony is attributed to Paion, doctor to the Gods.
 Hyoscyamus albus or Heraklion are medical plants, named after Hercules.
 Chiron organized the cultivation of plants.
 Around 5th
century B.C. – Asclepius, the king of Thessaly and God of medicine, treated patients with
herbs. In this temple, medicine was practiced by priests.
 More than 40 medical books exist in the name of Hippocrates (460 B.C.) who is considered father of
medicines. He used simple remedies consisting of barley, honey, vinegar, anethole, corrdiander,
colocynth, fennel etc.
 Diocles, son of Archidamos wrote an herbalist manual “Rhizotomikon” which contains prescriptions
made from plants like fenugreek, linseed and honey.
 Existence of plants in Greek therapeutics is documented in:
o De Historia Plantanum and Dr Causis Plamtanum by Theophrastus (340 B.C.). He wrote 200
books, from which 20 are available 9 on history of plants and 6 on their growth.
o De Materia Media of Dioscorides (78 A.D.) which contains 500 medicinal plants.
o Natural history by Pliny (60 A.D.), a compilation of 1000 plants from the Roman times.
Roman Pharmacy Titles:
 PHARMACOPOEIA - Maker of remedies

 PHARMACOTRITAE - Drug grinder
 UNGUENTARI - Maker of ointments
 PIGMENTARI - Maker of cosmetics
 PHARMACOPOLAE - Seller of drugs
 AROMATARII - Dealers of spices
ASKLEPIOUS (GOD OF HEALING):
 Beginning in the 7th century BC, the wise and kind Asklepios gradually superseded Apollo as the
greatest of the healing gods.
 At the touch of his hands or of the tongue of his sacred serpent, miraculous things happened.
 The staff of Asklepios entwined by a Sacred serpent gradually emerged as the official symbol of
medicine around the world.
 On the right hand of Asklepious stood Hygeia, one of his daughter.
 Her arm entwined by a serpent and holding a bowl thought to have contained a healing poison.
 And in the earliest records one finds a similar mixed concept of drug or Pharmakon, a Greek word that
meant “magic spells’’ or “poison”.
HIPPOCRATES:
 From another period in Greek history the greatest name That is still with us today is that of Physician
Hippocrates known as the “father of medicine”.
 He is one of the most important name in the development of Pharmacy as a profession based on
scientific knowledge rather than a mixture of medicine and spiritual acts.
 During this period the word Pharmakon came to mean “a purifying remedy”.
 He mentioned around 200 – 400 drugs as well as methods of carrying out various Pharmaceutical
processes.
DIOSCORIDES:
 He was a Greek Physician and botanist (first century A.D). He was the first scientist to deal botany as
an applied science of Pharmacy.
 His work “De Materia Medica”, is considered a milestone in the development of Pharmaceutical
botany and in the study of naturally occurring medicinal materials. This area of study is today known
as “Pharmacognosy”.
 He explained methods of preparing crude drugs from opium and many other botanical drugs. He
developed the art of identification, collection, purification and proper storage of botanical drugs.
CLAUDIUS GALEN:
 He was a renowned Greek Pharmacist and Physician. He practiced and taught both medicine and
pharmacy in Rome, his Principles of Preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the western world
for 1500 years.
 He aimed to create a perfect system of Physiology, Pathology and treatment of illness.
 He wrote 500 books on medicine including numerous drugs of natural origin, formulae and methods
of compounding.

 It was his tremendous work in the field of crude natural origin drugs that still today his name is
associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means – “Galenical
Preparations”.
 The most famous of his formulas is one for a cold cream called Galen’s cerate, essentially similar to
that known today.
PERSIA:
 Persia, at crossroads between East and West, was the cradle of very old and brilliant civilization.
 Their knowledge of plants and phototherapy still reflects in the Greco-Arab therapeutics.
 Ancient Iranian therapeutics available in their holybook, “Avesta” (700 B.C.) is based on medicinal
plants, surgery and magic.
 Avesta’s 9th
century compilation the “Denkart” contains a chapter on 4333 diseases caused by evil
spirit. Cure is 70 categories of remedies, all from plants.
II. MIDDLE AGES:
With the advent of Christianity, the healing temples of Asklepios eventually fell into disease. During
the medieval millennium, however, religious medicines within Christian concepts gave the healing power of
faith and divine intervention new scope.
LATIN ERA:
As a guide to preparing compound drugs, two traditional types of Latin compilations, which evolved
into modern counterparts, were “Receptaria” (more modest formularies) and the “Antidotria” (similar to
dispensatories). It was a particular literature for both medicine and pharmacy, copied by scribes who added,
omitted and revised to suit local needs.
ARABIAN INFLUENCE:
For pharmacy, the Arabic influence was important also because we can discern the rise of the qualified
pharmacist (al-Saidalani) as a separate functionary, beginning around Baghdad (729 A.D.) They also had
different drug forms which are now used such as syrups, conserves, confections and juleps. Hospitals,
however, were being secularized under municipal authority by the 13th
century.
THE RENAISSANCE:
 It lasts from 1350 to 1650 A.D.
 It is the end of ancient era and middle ages.
 Pharmacy became separated from medicine.
 Pharmacy regulations was begun.
 University education for pharmacists was now required.
 More and new drugs were imported from orient.
 New chemicals were introduced.
 Pharmacy achieved professional status.
 Guilds were formed for the profession of pharmacy.
SAINTS COSMAS AND DAMIAN:

 Twinship of health professions, Pharmacy and medicine is nowhere more strikingly portrayed than by:
o Damian, the apothecary and
o Cosmas, the Physician
 They were the twin brothers of Arabian descent. Their twin careers were cut short in the year 303 by
martyrdom.
 They were the pattern saints of Pharmacy and medicine and many miracles are attributed to them
FREDERICK-II - SEPARATION OF PHARMACY AND MEDICINE:
 In European countries exposed to Arabian Influence, public pharmacies began to Appear in the 17th
century.
 However, it was not until about 1240 A.D. That, in southern Italy, Pharmacy was separated from
Medicine.
 Frederick II, was Emperor of Germany. At his palace, he presented subject Pharmacists with the first
European edict completely separating their responsibilities from those of Medicine, and prescribing
regulations for their professional practice
PARACELSUS - BORNBASTUS VON HOHENHEIM (1493-1541):
Perhaps no person in history exercised such a revolutionary influence on Pharmacy and Medicine as
did Aureolus Theophrastus. Bornbastus Von Hohenheim (1493-1541), A Swiss Physician and chemist who
called himself Paracelsus. He influenced the transformation of Pharmacy from a profession based primarily
on botanical science to one based on chemical science.
EDWARD JENNER:
Remarkable advance in medicine and Pharmacy took place in the year 1796 when Edward Jenner
performed the first vaccination on a human patient.
FRIEDRICK SERTURNER:
He was a German Pharmacist and isolated Morphine from opium.
JOSEPH PELLETIER & JOSEPH CAVENTOU:
They were French and isolated several alkaloids like strychnine and brucine from Nux vomica and
quinine and cinchonine from cinchona. Pelletier together with Pierre Robiquet isolated caffeine and Robiquet
independently separated codeine from opium.
MODERN EUROPE:
 A movement in Western Europe that aimed at reforming some doctrines and practices of the Roman
Catholic Church that resulted in the establishment of the Protestant Churches.
 Medicine, like art before 1600, was essentially integrated into religion.
 At the beginning of 17th
century, medical practice was divided into three phases.
o The Physician
o The Surgeons
o The Apothecaries (Drug sellers)
 A medical reform movement was started in Europe as a reaction against heroic medicine.
 Pharmacopoeias were used to protect public health.

 Roots, barks, herbs, flowers etc. were used and controlled by government.
 The questioned the toxological effects on human body.
 In 1751, Benjamin Franklin started the FIRST HOSPITAL.
 The first hospital pharmacist to work in that hospital was Jonathan Roberts.
 William Proctor was the father of American Pharmacy who spent most of his life to the advancement
of pharmacy.
 Science grew in the 17th
and 18th
centuries. Many new drugs and chemicals were identified e.g.
nitrogen, atropine, quinine, caffeine, morphine, codeine and testosterone etc.
AMERICAN PHARMACY:
 As soon as Columbus started his explorations of the Americas in the late 15th century, some European
efforts to find valuable medicinal plants among the flora of the New World to add to the medical canon
got underway.
 The first drugstore in North America appeared in Boston, Newyork.
 The 19th century (1800s) birthed “pharmacy as we know it” and again, pharmacy’s development in
mainland Europe continued to fuel its growth in the young American republic.
MEDICAL SOCIETIES AND EDUCATION OF PHARMACY:
In 19th century, many medical societies were established to increase the quality of medicines and to
promote the profession of pharmacy such as American Pharmaceutical Association whose slogan is to
produce better pharmacists.
University Education regarding pharmacy was started in 1829 when New York College of
Pharmacy was established. These colleges were acting as professional associations, or at least promoted
pharmacist education and the distinct profession of pharmacist with a guild-like zeast.
With the rise of mechanization and mass production, new modern ways of making tablets (1884), the
enteric-coated pill (1884) and gelatin capsule (1875) became practicable.
By 1900, most pharmacies stocked the shelves, partially or pre-dominantly, with medicines growing
industries to train pharmacist to produce medicines increasingly eroded.
III. INDUSTRIALIZATION ERA:
 During civil war and World War – I, more people needed drugs for injuries and illness from the wars,
so mass production of medications were made through industrial machines.
 Scientific research was also growing in the industrial era. Investigations into medicines and their
effects were studied.
 Due to all the researches many new drugs and uses of old drugs were being used which caused more
reactions and interactions with medications, which is why the patient care era is called that.
IV. PATIENT CARE ERA:
 In 19th
and 20th
century new problems were seen like allergic reactions, multiple drug interactions with
other drugs and foods.
 It increases the therapeutic duties of patient care in pharmacies and hospitals.

V. BIOTECHNOLOGY ERA:
 In 21st
century gene therapy is being conducted. Some diseases are linked to genetic defects.
Pharmacists are trying to modify the genetic makeup of people that may prevent or cure diseases.
 Recombinant DNA technology is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the
combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands, thereby combining DNA sequences that would
not normally cure together.
Importance of Profession:
 Impact on individual patient(s):
o State of health
o Better health of individual
 Pharmacy services results in:
o Improved health
o Economic outcomes
o Reduction in adverse effects of medicines
o Improved quality of life
o Reduced morbidity and mortality
 Pharmaceuticals:
o Formulation / manufacturing
o Quality assurance / monitoring
o Licensing / registration
o Marketing
o Dispensing
o Distribution / supply / storage
o Education, research & development
THE SEVEN-STAR PHARMACIST:
It is a concept developed by WHO in 2000.
 Care-giver
 Decision-maker
 Communicator
 Manager
 Life-long-learner
 Teacher
 Leader and researcher
Role of Muslim Scientist in Pharmacy:
Among the Muslim scientist, the Arabs were the greatest doctors, the first chemists, the best
pharmacists. They played a major role in history of therapeutics. They preserved and built the knowledge of
Greco-Roman period. They followed the teachings of Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The formerly nomadic people
who united into the nations of Islam conquered huge areas of middle east and Africa and eventually expanding
into Spain and eastern Europe.

Abbasid Caliphate:
In Baghdad, the first Pharmacy was established in 754 under the Abbasid caliphate during the Islamic
golden age. The clear-cut separation of the two professions, physicians and Pharmacist was done in 800 A.D
in Abbasid caliphate.
Yahanna Bin Masawayh (777 to 857 A.D.):
He was one of the contributors to Arabic Pharmacy. He Wrote a book “Ibn-e-Masawayh” which
includes 30 aromatics, their Physical properties, method of detecting adulteration (spoil) and Pharmacological
effects. Ibn-e-Masawayh recommended saffron for liver and stomach ailments.
Abu- Hassan Ali Bin Sahl Rabban at Tabari:
He wrote a famous book “paradise of wisdom”. It contains discussions on the nature of man,
cosmology (study of stars), embryology, diet and diseases.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ar Razi (841 to 926 A.D.):
He was one of the greatest Physician in Islam but at the same time he was supporter of the art of Al-
Chemy. To a great extent, he influenced the development of Pharmacy and medical therapy throughout the
middle ages. He wrote two books named Ar-Asrar and Sirr Al Asrar.
Ali Ibn-Al-Abbas Al-Majusi (994 A.D.):
He was a Persian physician and psychologist, most famous for the Kitab al-Maliki (Complete Book of
the Medical Art). In this book he concluded that, “joy and contentment can bring a better living status to many
who would otherwise be sick and miserable due to unnecessary sadness, fear, worry and anxiety”.
Al Ghafiqi:
He was the highly respected Physician in cordova (muslim spain) an that he was also interested in
Pharmacy as well.
Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936 – 1013 A.D.):
He was Pioneer in the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. Also he worked on the
extraction or urinary bladder stones. He is known as the doctor of / father of surgery. He wrote “Kitab-al-
Tasrif”, a thirty volume encyclopedia of medical practices. The 28th
book consists of simple medicines of
vegetables, animals or mineral origin.
Sabur Bin Sahl (940 to 1000 A.D.):
The first medical formulary to be written in Arabic is “al-Aqrabadin”. In it, he gave medical recipes
stating the methods and techniques of compounding these remedies, their Pharmacological actions, the
dosages and the means of administration.
Ibn-e-Sina (Avicenna) (980 – 1037 A.D.):
Among the brilliant contributors to the sciences of Pharmacy and Medicine during the Arabian era was
one genius who seems to stand for his time – the Persian, Ibn-e-Sina (about 980-1037 A.D.), called Avicenna
by the Western world. Pharmacist, poet, physician, philosopher and diplomat. Avicenna was an intellectual

giant, a favorite of Persian princes and rulers. He wrote in Arabic. He wrote the famous book “ Kitab Al Shifa
( the book of healing ). He also described 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their
indications.
Al –Beruni (973 – 1050):
He wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works entitled “Kitab-ul-Saydalah” (the book of drugs)
where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of Pharmacy and the
functions and duties of the Pharmacist. He was known as father of Arabic Pharmacy.
Ibn Al-Wafid (997 – 1074):
He was a pharmacologist and physician from Toledo. His main work is Kitab al-adwiya al-mufrada
which include 520 different kinds of medicines from various plants and herbs.
Saladin de Asculo:
He is one of the greatest influence on practice of pharmacy among early Italian works was the
Compendium written by him in middle of 15th
century for information of pharmacist. This book is called as
“the first real treatise on pharmacy in a modern sense… which became the model for all later textbooks of
pharmacy”.
Al-Ghafiqi:
He is famous for controlling plants from Spain and Africa and documented them with names in Arabic,
Latin and Berber.
Abdullah Ibn Ahmad ibn Al-Baytar:
He was a pharmacist and botanist and was author of two books “Al-Mughanifi al-Adwiyal-al-
Mufaradah” (Medicines) and “Al-Jami Jilah Adwiyah al-Mufradah” (contains simple remedies). This
collection is claimed to contain more than 2000 plants.
Jabir Bin Hayyan:
He recommended:
 Psyllium mucilage, gourds, whey for biliary troubles
 Bamboo, vinegar, pomegranates for blood diseases
 Castor, asafetida for pituitary problems
Ar-Rafiqi (11th
Century):
He was a botanist who compiled information on medicines of plant and mineral origin.
Al-Harith:
He was the first amongst the Arabs as a during the period of Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬.
Shaikh Jalal-ud-Din Abu Suleiman Daud:
He was the writer of Tibb-e-Nabvi. This was translated by Dr. Perron.
Yaqub Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (800 – 873 A.D.):

In medicines, his chief contribution comprises the fact that he was the first to systematically determine
the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting views prevailing
among physicians on the dosage caused difficulties in writing recipes.
Ibn al-Nafis (1213 – 1288 A.D.):
He was a doctor basically. He wrote “Al-Shamil fial-Tibb” comprising 300 volumes.
Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (1091 – 1161 A.D.):
He was one of the greatest physicians of Muslim Golden era. He wrote “Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat
wu al-Tadbir (book of simplification concerning therapeutics and diet).
Ali Bin Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (d. 870):
He was a physician under rule of al-Mu’tasim. He wrote Firdaus al-Hikma (Paradise of Wisdom). He
urged that therapeutic value of each drug be reconciled with particular disease. For sorting drugs he
recommended glass or ceramic vessels for liquid drugs, small jars for eye liquid shelves and lead containers
for fatty substances.
Yahya ibn Jazla (d. 1100 A.D.):
He composed Taqwim al-Abdan fi Tadbir al-Insan, which consisted 44 tables, and 352 diseases.
Modern Age & Early Research:
THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION:
 Need for better intercommunication among pharmacists; standards for education and apprenticeship;
and quality control of imported drugs, led to calling of a convention of representative pharmacists in
the Hall of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, October 6 to 8, 1852.
 Under leadership of its first President, Daniel B. Smith, and first Secretary, William Procter, Jr., the
twenty delegates launched The American Pharmaceutical Association; mapped its objectives, and
opened membership to "All Pharmacists and Druggists”.
 The Association continues to serve Pharmacy today.
THE STANDARDIZATION OF PHARMACEUTICALS:
 Despite the professional skill and integrity of 19th-century pharmacists, seldom did two preparations
of vegetable drugs have the same strength, even though prepared by identical processes. Plant drugs
varied widely in active alkaloidal and glycosidal content.
 The first answer to this problem came when Parke, Davis & Company introduced standardized "Liquor
Ergotae Purificatus".
 Parke-Davis also pioneered in developing pharmacologic and physiologic standards for
pharmaceuticals.
THE PHARMACOPOEIA COMES OF AGE:
 As the scientific basis for drugs and drug products developed so did the need for uniform standards to
ensure quality.

 This need led to the development and publication of monographs and reference books. Organized sets
of monographs or books of these standards are called Pharmacopoeias and formularies.
 The "United States Pharmacopoeia" (1820) was the first book of drug standards from a professional
source which achieved a national acceptance.
THE ERA OF BIOLOGICALS:
 When, in 1894, Behring and Roux announced the effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin, pharmaceutical
scientists both in Europe and in the United States rushed to put the new discovery into production.
 Parke, Davis & Company was among the pioneers.
 The serum became available in 1895, and lives of thousands of children were saved.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMOTHERAPY:
 One of the successful researcher’s in the development of new chemical compounds specifically created
to fight disease-causing organisms in the body was the French pharmacist, Ernest Francois Auguste
Fourneau, who for 30 years headed chemical laboratories in the world-renowned Institute Pasteur, in
Paris.
 His early work with bismuth and arsenic compounds advanced the treatment of syphilis.
 He paved the way for the life-saving sulfonamide compounds, and from his laboratories came the
first group of chemicals having recognized antihistaminic properties.
 His work led other investigators to broaden the field of chemotherapeutic research.
PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH:
 Research in some form has gone hand in hand with the development of Pharmacy through the ages.
However, it was the chemical synthesis of antipyrine in 1883 that gave force and inspiration for
intensive search for therapeutically useful compounds.
 Begun by the Germans, who dominated the research field until World War-I, thereafter the lead
was transferred to the United States. Research in Pharmacy, came into its own in the late 1930's and
early 1940's, since than it has grown steadily, supported by pharmaceutical manufactures, universities,
and government.
 Today it is using techniques and trained personnel from every branch of science in the unending
search for new life-saving and life-giving drug products
PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING COMES OF AGE:
 Pharmaceutical manufacturing as an industry apart from retail Pharmacy had its beginnings about 1600, really
got under way in the middle 1700. It developed first in Germany, then in England and France.
 In America, it was the child of wars - born in the Revolution, grew rapidly during and following the Civil War,
became independent of Europe during World War-I, came of age during and following World War-II.
 Utilizing latest technical advances from every branch of science, manufacturing of
Pharmaceuticals is developing and producing the latest and greatest drugs prescribe them and
pharmacists dispense them for the benefit of all mankind.
THE ERA OF ANTIBIOTICS:
 Antibiotics are not new. Their actions probably were first observed by Pasteur in 1877. However, the
second quarter of the 20th century marked the flowering of the antibiotic era - a new and dramatic

production of disease-fighting drugs. Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1929 went undeveloped and
Florey and Chain studied it in 1940.
 Under Pressure of World war-II the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers rapidly applied mass production
methods to penicillin.
 Antibiotic discoveries came rapidly in the '40's.
 Intensive research continues to find antibiotics that will conquer more of men's microbial
enemies.
PHARMACY TODAY & TOMORROW:
 Pharmacy, with its heritage of 50 centuries of service to mankind, has come to be recognized as one
of the great profession.
 Like Medicine, it has come through many revolutions, has learned many things, has had to discard
many of its older ways.
 Pharmacists are among the community's finest educated people.
 Pharmacy's professional importance will continue to grow in the future as this great heritage
and tradition of service is passed on from preceptor to apprentice, from teacher to student, from
father to son.
Introduction to Official Books:
The word Pharmacopoeia is derived from Greek, Pharmakon and poieo. It indicates a book issued by
a recognized body or authority containing a list of drugs and formulas for medicinal preparations, together
with description of these substances and standards to which they must conform.
ORIGIN:
Prior to Pharmacopoeias apothecary have to look for guidance and knowledge to books written by
individuals who have achieved fame in medicines. These books may be divided into 2 classes:
 The Herbal
 The Formularies
THE HERBAL:
 These books contain information about medicinal plants, their properties and recipes for preparing
remedies. The most important book was “The Meteria Medica” by Dioscorides. It contains more than
600 plants and herbs having medicinal value and also animal and mineral substances.
 This book remained authority for more than 1500 years. Its complete edition was printed in 1529.
 Another important name is “Pliny the Elder” 23-79 A.D. reported 1000 plants of medicinal value.
THE FORMULARIES:
 These were the more authoritative books for physicians and consists chiefly of recipes and list of
medicinal substances and were variously styled as “Compendium, Dispensatorium or
Antidotarium”.
 These books based on ancient Greek, Roman and Arabian writers.
 The most widely known book was Antidotarium of Nicholas describing the preparation of
confectioneries, lozenges, ointments, pills, syrups and many other classes of preparations and also

prescribed apothecaries weight and measure system i.e., the grain and drachms still employed in
present day pharmacy.
PHARMACOPOEIA:
An official publication containing a list of medicinal drugs with their effects and directions for their
use published by the pharmacopoeial commission or by the authority of a medicinal or pharmaceutical society.
The word pharmacopoeia is derived from two Greek words i.e. ‘pharmakon’ meaning ‘drug’ and ‘poeis’
meaning ‘make’ thus giving the meaning of drug making. In a broader sense it is a reference work for
pharmaceutical drug specifications.
SPELLINGS:
 Pharmacopoeia
 Pharmacopeia
 Pharmacopoea
MONOGRAPH:
The description of the preparation is called as monograph. It is a set of document given in the
pharmacopoeia which tells about test to perform for a specific compound or a dosage form or raw material.
APPENDICES:
An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the test itself but which
may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information
that is too cumbersome to be included in body of a monograph. It includes apparatus, and its construction,
general procedures and tests for a particular drug.
TYPES OF PHARMACOPEIAS:
i. Brazilian Pharmacopeia
ii. British Pharmacopoeia (BP)
iii. British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) – Retired
iv. Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP)
v. Czeck Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Boh)
vi. European Pharmacopeia (EP)
vii. French Pharmacopeia (FP)
viii. German Pharmacopeia (GP)
ix. Pakistan Pharmacopeia (PP)
x. United State Pharmacopeia (USP)
DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOPOEIA:
 The development of Pharmacopoeia must be credited to the discovery of printing techniques in the
15th
century. It was felt that there should be some authoritative formulary, at least for some particular
community.
 1st
book published by College of Florence in 1498. It contains the important work of Nicholas.

 The city of Nuremberg was 1st community to process a Pharmacopoeia who was legally binding on
the apothecaries of that city in 1529. They adopted 100 years old book “Luminare Majus” published
in 1406.
 In 1546 it was replaced by Dispensatorium of Valerius Cordus.
 This action of Nuremberg stimulated others to publish their own pharmacopoeias.
 In 16th century, pharmacopoeias of London, Augsburg, Antwerp, Lyons, Basle, Valencia, Cologne,
Paris and Amsterdam emerged.
LONDON PHARMACOPOEIA:
 It was published in 1618 by College of Physicians and contains more than 2000 drugs and
preparations. Mostly old work was gathered. It remained English pharmacopoeia for 3 centuries.
 Numerous editions were published.
FUSION OF NATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIAS:
 Medical Act of 1858 ordered the fusion of London, Edinburgh and Dublin pharmacopoeias to form
British Pharmacopoeia.
 The General Council of Medical Education and Registration of UK was given exclusive rights of
publishing, printing and selling the book.
 1st
edition with the collaboration of Pharmaceutical Society appeared in 1864. Subsequent editions in
1867, 1885, 1898, 1914 and sixth in 1932.
 A pharmacopoeia commission was established in 1914 to revive and make amendments in official
books.
FORMULARIES:
 These are supplementary to Pharmacopoeias. The scope of Pharmacopoeia is mainly restricted to drugs
and preparations which at the time of publication are of sufficient importance.
 Information regarding drugs and preparations which are widely used but are not official and also the
recently introduced substances which have not yet proved sufficiently important for inclusion in
pharmacopoeia must be sought elsewhere.
 Various books of this kind appeared from time to time, but the most important were.
o British Pharmaceutical Codex (B.P.C.)
o Extra Pharmacopoeia (E.P.)
o B.P.C. is published by Pharmaceutical Society. 1st edition was published in 1907, 2nd
in 1911
than in 1915, 1922 and 1923.
o E.P. was published in 1883 by W. Martindale and W. W. Westcott. In 1933 after the death of
W. H. Martindale (son of W. Martindale) the rights of this book were purchased by society.
INTERNATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIA:
 In 1951, WHO published the Pharmacopoeia Internationalis, a compilation in two volumes (volume 2
in 1955).
 It designed a collection of standards which could serve as reference for the establishment of
international standards.
 Its 2nd
edition was published in 1963 and 3rd
edition comprising 5 volumes in 1979.

EUROPEAN PHARMACOPOEIA:
 In 1964 a council of Europe was established and included 7 countries, whose council of ministers
adopted a resolution to establish an European Pharmacopoeia.
 The 7 countries were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and UK. Latter
on Switzerland was accepted as 8th member.
 These countries signed a document by which this Pharmacopoeia was made legal and binding for all.
o 1st
volume published in 1969
o 2nd
volume in 1971 and
o 3rd
volume in 1975
PAKISTAN PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:
The government of Pakistan constituted Pakistan Pharmacopeia under assistance of Pakistan
Pharmacopoeial commission / committee in 1964, dated on August 08th
. The tenure of the office of memebers
was 5 years.
Applications:
It includes:
 Antibiotics, antiseptics, anti-epileptics
 Anti-histamines, anti-conversant, hypnotics, analgesics
 Hormones and vitamins
Among specifications, it includes:
 Standards for drugs
 Specifications except storage
 Uniformity
 Added substances
 Apparatus
 Procedure
 Biological assays
 Preservations
National Formulary of Pakistan:
First edition of Pakistan NF was published in 1973. The general scope of pharmacopoeia is to give
description and prescribe standards for identity, purity, strength, potency and dosage of substances used in the
practice of medicine and surgery.
BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:
BP is the pharmacopoeia of United Kingdom (UK). It is an annually published collection of quality
standards for UK medicinal substances.
Pharmacopoeia Commission:

BP is prepared by the pharmacopoeial commission, including pharmacopoeial secretaries, working in
collaboration with BP laboratory, BP commission and its expert advisory groups and panels.
History:
BP was first published in 1864 and was one of the first attempts to harmonize the pharmaceutical
standards and was titled Pharmacopoeia Britannica. A commission was first appointed by general Medicine
Council for producing BP on national basis. In 1968, medicine act established the legal status of B.P.
commission and made it responsible for preparing new editions of BP.
Edition 2008:
It contains 300 monographs for drug substances.
Edition 2011:
BP 2011 contains approx. 3375 monographs, preparations and articles used in practice of medicine.
The BP 2011 comprises 6 volumes, which are as follows.
 Volume 1 and 2: Medicinal substances
 Volume 3: Formulated preparations (General and Specific monographs)
 Volume 4: Herbal, homeopathic, surgical, immunologic products
 Volume 5: IR reference, spectrum, appendices, supplementary chapters, Index
 Volume 6: BP veterinary
Electronic Edition:
BP is also available electronically in both online CO-ROM versions.
Applications of British Pharmacopoeia:
The BP contains:
 General notices (providing general information applicable to all tests)
 General monographs (apply to all dosage forms)
 Specific monographs providing mandatory standards for:
o API, excipients
o Formulated preparations (licensed and unlicensed products)
o Herbal drug products
o Blood-related products
o Immunologic products
o Radiopharmaceutical preparations
 IR reference standards
 Appendices (scattered information)
 Supplementary chapters
 Comprehensive index (separate raw and finished product monographs)
UNITED STATE PHARMACOPOEIA:
Introduction:

USP is for US and is published annually by US Pharmacopoeial commission. USP is published as a
combined volume with national formulary as USP-NF.
First Edition:
It was published in 1820. It contained therapeutic products, their information and recipes of their
preparations.
USP30-NF25:
It contains specific standards of drug dietary substances, biological products used in dosage form.
USP31-NF26:
It contains official substances and preparations monographs. It contains approx. 4240 monographs,
more than 220 general tests and assays. It consists of 3 volumes:
 Volume 1: It contains preface, admissions, notices, general chapters, reagents, indicators, test papers,
solutions, reference tables, supplements, microbiological tests pf assays, chemical tests and assays.
 Volume 2: It has guide to general chapters, monograph (A – L) and index.
 Volume 3: It contains notices, monograph (M – Z) and index.
USP 39-NF34:
It is the current edition of USP-NF.
Drug Compendia:
The books containing the standards of drugs and related substances are known as pharmacopoeia.
Collectively, these books are known as drug compendia.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHARMACOPOEIA AND FORMULARY:
Pharmacopoeia Formulary
Definition
An official book containing directions for the use of
drugs and their QC tests.
An official book giving details of predictable
medicine. It does not provide QC methods.
Information
It provides no indications, adverse effects or
contraindication of drugs.
It gives name, indication, DDIs and
contraindications of drug use.
Tests
It includes the procedures for the testing the quality
of drugs.
It does not include procedures to perform several
tests.
Quality or Region Drugs
It is used for information about QC testing. It is basically the list of drugs of a particular region.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

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