1. Classical Ethical
Theories

2. Note:
• Ethical Theories show us that
morality exists
• Distinguish Good from Evil
• These Theories are normative.
• Thus create moral
disagreements among people.

3. • Each classical ethical theory has
its view about the reality of
morality.
• Each theory gives important
truths a bout moral life.
• None of the theories can claim to
possess the whole truth

4. • Each theory checks the excesses‘ of
the other,
• Thereby showing the limits of each
theory .
• Some theories are consequential in
Nature,
• While others are non-consequential.

5. Moral Absolutism
• Claims that there are absolute
standards against which
morality can be judged.
• We can strive to attain higher
norms that apply to all human
beings.

6. Moral absolutism cont’d
• Certain actions are right or
wrong irrespective of the
context of the act.
• Nothing is relative; a crime is a
crime regardless of the
circumstances.

7. Moral Absolutism Cont’d
• Therefore right and wrong are
universal truths ( ethical
standards are applicable to
every body everywhere.

8. Analysis:
• From an egoistic view, moral
absolutism condones
fundamentalism. This can break
down society.
• This would imply that all people
should have the same ethical
codes.

9. Cont’d
• positively:, it allows us to
judge the actions of others.

10. Moral Relativism
• There are no universal moral
standards; Nothing is good or bad
absolutely.
• Therefore the truth/ moral
principles vary from time to time,
group to group place to place

11. Moral Relativism Cont’d
• Every one should be contented
with the morality of their time
and place
•

12. Two Forms of Relativism
1.Subjectivism: Each individual
must act according to what
he/she considers appropriate
for each situation

13. Forms of Relativism Cont’d
2. Cultural Relativism: Good and
Bad depends on the ethical
values prevailing in the given
culture/community.

14. Analysis
• No responsibility, No blame
every body/groups have their
own moral standards.
• Can not Judge others
• Laws become impossible to
implement

15. Consequentialism
• Actions are judged according
to the end / completion /
effect.
• Sum total good in actions must
exceed the evil

16. Forms of Consequentialism
1.Ethical Egoism
2.Utilitarianism/altruism
3.Pragmatism
4. Feminist Consequentialism

17. Forms Cont’d
Ethical Egoism:
• What is ethical is that which
produces good consequences
to the actor.( hedonists/
Thomas Hobbes)

18. Analysis
• Is it possible to avoid pain?
• Foregoing sensual pleasure to
enjoy higher pleasure; postpone
the enjoyment of pleasure
• Pleasure generalized; sacrifice,
duty, generosity.. Etc

19. Utilitarianism; Jeremy
Bentham & Stuart Mill
• Using the principle of
utility,(Maximizing the Good)
Bentham found pain and
pleasure to be the only
intrinsic values in the world.

21. Utilitarianism Cont’d
• Man is governed naturally by pain
and pleasure.
• Actions and policies should be
evaluated on the basis of the
benefits and costs they have on
society.

22. Utilitarianism Cont’d
• Correct actions produce
greatest net benefits or
lowest net costs.
• Greatest happiness/good
for the greatest number.

23. Utilitarianism Cont’d
• People affected by actions are
stakeholders of the action;
therefore businesses should
consider all people affected by
their businesses as
stakeholders in the business.

24. Utilitarianism Cont’d
• Essentials of Utility
• Maximizing good
• Theory of value: standard of goodness:
intrinsic values- satisfaction of desires-
attainment of autonomy-achievement of deep
personal relationships
• Consequentialism; produce the best utilitarian
outcome

25. Utilitarianism Cont’d
• Impartiality/ Universalism

26. Analysis
• Is it possible to determine
pleasure for others?
• Is morality for the majority
always right?

27. Analysis cont’d
• Can lead to radical actions,
infanticide, exterminate
sufferers .. Assisted suicide(
euthanasia)

28. Pragmatism
• There is no room for
absolutism; ethical standards
change according to their
usefulness or practicability and
their ability to produce good
effect.

29. Pragmatism Cont’d
• Good actions are those that
work, profitable, or have
practical consequences, help
solve a problem, and produce
positive results.

30. Analysis
• No common Morality
• One can not be certain of the
consequences.

31. Feminist Consequentilism
Caro Gilligan/ Ethics of Care
• Men use logic and rules/ laws
to arrive at moral decisions.
They generalize morality while
Women see morality as being
entailed in communication and
relationships. Morality is
particular

32. Ethics of Care Cont’d
• Men see themselves as guilty
for doing something wrong
while women hold themselves
responsible for not doing
something to prevent the hurt.

33. Ethics of Care Cont’d
• Women change rules in order
to preserve relationships
while men abide by rules and
see relationships as
replaceable.

34. Ethics of Care Cont’d
• Therefore actions that are
right are those that do not
break up relationships, hurt
other peoples feelings; and
vise versa.

35. Non-Consequential Theories
• Kantian Ethics
• Deontology
• Virtue Ethics

36. Deontological Theories
• Greek word “ Deon” and “logos” meaning
duty or obligation.
• Acting in accordance to one’s duty is right.
• What are duties?
• Hugo Grotius ( 1583-1635) and Samuel
Pufendorf ( 1632-1694)
• Duties towards God
• Towards one’s self

37. Duties Cont’d
• Duty towards others. Family, friends, general
social obligations etc
• W.D ROSS DUTIES ( 1817-1971)
• Fidelity
• Gratitude
• Justice
• Beneficence
• Self improvement and Non- maleficence.

38. Kantian Ethics/Theory
• Immanuel Kant : 1724-1804
• He is a critique of the Utilitarian's, hedonists,
pragmatists, who never care a bout the motives
of actors/agents.
• Actions are duty based ( motive)
• Right actions are those that are done when the
agent possesses good will( a person recognizes
that they ought to do these actions)
• Categorical Imperative ( unconditional/
command- / essential)

39. Kant Cont’d
• “ Act only to that maxim by which you can at
the same time will that it should become a
universal law” Universalism
• Key Issues:
• Duty and Good will
• Universalism
• Treating Human Beings as an “ End” not
“Means”

40. Virtue ethics
• Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do
the good.
• Virtues allow a person not only to perform
good acts to give the best of himself/herself in
every thing.
• A good person
directs his/herself towards the good with all
his/her sensory and spiritual powers.

41. Virtues cont’d
• A virtuous person stands firm in trying
moments
• The choice of good acts produces virtue and
virtues itself is the source of choosing to do
good acts.
• Good habits make virtues and bad habits
make the vices. ( Virtues= good; Vice= bad)

42. Virtues Cont’d
• Virtues are therefore necessary for a moral
life.
• Virtues govern actions, give one a firm and
good attitude, perfect the intellect, control
passions, and generally make it easy for one to
enjoy leading a morally good life.
• Virtues are acquired by human effort ( they
are the seed and fruit of morally good acts)

43. Virtues Cont’d
• Classifications of Virtues.
1. Cardinal Virtues/ moral virtues: Main/Major
all other virtues originate from them.
 Prudence: Right reason-ability to discern true
good from every circumstance.
 Justice: Fairness; promote equity.
 Fortitude: Firmness in difficulty-constant
pursuit of good

44. Virtues Cont’d
• Resistance to temptations
• Ability to overcome obstacles.
Temperance: Moderates attraction of pleasures.
2. Super natural : Charity, Hope and Faith
3. Intellectual: wisdom, science, art

45. Natural Law Tradition
• Laws of nature govern the activities of the
universe, instruct emotions common to man, like
love of offspring, self preservation etc ; Therefore
• All rational persons know what kind of actions
morality prohibits, requires, discourages and
encourages. It is reason which makes us act
morally.
• What is natural is right/good and vice versa.[

46. Divine Command Theory
• Good actions commanded by God

47. Communitarianism
• Common good
• Social Goals
• Co-operative Virtues
• Community Values
• Solidarity: community makes the individual
and Vice versa
• Society assigns roles. Therefore what is in line
with the common good is right and vice versa.

48. • Elements to evaluate an ethical act
• Object /act
• End/intention
• Circumstances
• Evaluation of acts with a double effect
• Responsibility for other peoples actions
• Responsibility for cooperating in other peoples
actions
• Restrictions to proper use of the intellect.
•

49. Ethics
Deontological Right Action Duty Rights
Teleological/conquentialism