RMSA Complete Notes.pptx

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Syllabus
Unit - I: Introduction to Research
Types of Research, Research Process-Conceptualization of
variables and Measurement – Types and measurement of
variables – Reliability and validity in measurement of variables-
sources of errorin measurement- Ethics in business research.

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Syllabus: Introduction to Research

Research
• The word research is derived
from the French word
‘recherché’which means “to go
about seeking”.
• The word research consists of
two syllables, “re” and
“search”.
• Which means search again
and again.
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• Re+Search which means
Re= Again(or) a new.
Search = About something.
• Research is a way of thinking.
• Research is a purposeful investigation.
• Research is an effort to gain new knowledge.
• Management research comes from the Scientific and
social science research.
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• Research always begins with a
question or problem.
• The main purpose of the research is
to find out the answer for a question.
• Research in common parlance to
search for knowledge.
• Research is an art of scientific
knowledge.
• Some people consider that research is
a movement known to the unknown.
• Research is a simple activity answers
to your questions called research.
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• Some people think that the research means
reference to recording book orsearching the
internet this is not a research.
• Really research means collect yourown
original data and analyzing the information
through methodologically.
• Research has defined by different authors in
different ways.
• But There is no unanimity definition about
research.
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Definition of Research
• Advanced Learner's Dictionary
of Current English (Oxford):
Research defined as "Acareful
investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge."
• According to Burns Research is a
“Systematic Investigation to find
out answers to a problem”
• According to Redman and Mory
Research is a “Systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.
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Characteristics of Research
1. It demands a clear statement of the problem.
2. It requires a plan.
3. It builds on existing data, using both positive and
negative findings.
4. New data should be collected.

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What is Business Research?
• The Business research is a systematic enquiry whose objective is
to provide information to solve problem.
• Business research covers wide range of phenomena.
• Business research is defined as the “Systematic and objective
process of gathering, recording, and analyzing data for aid in
making business decisions”
•There are many types of research in social sciences for example
1.Commerce.
2.Management.
3.Economics and Sociology.

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• The prime managerial value of business research is
that it reduces uncertainty by providing
information that improves the decision-making
process.
• Business research, by supplying managers with
pertinent information, may play an important role
by reducing managerial uncertainty in each of
these stages.

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Why we have to Study Research Methodology?
• To get knowledge and skills.
• To solve the problem.
• To meet the challenges a fast-paced decision making
environment.
• To discover answers to our questions.
• To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered so far.
• In Business research conducts organization to know everything
about there products,services,programmes and policies etc.

When Is Business Research Needed?
arch
• Amanager faced with two ormore possible
courses of action faces the initial decision of
whether or not research should be
conducted.
• The determination of the need for rese
centers on
(1) Time constraints,
(2)The availability of data,
(3)The nature of the decision that must be
made,and
(4)The value of the business research
information in relation to its costs.
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Objectives of Research
1) To get insights about problem.
2) To find solutions for a problem.
3) To test existing laws or theories.
4) To develop new ideas, concepts and theories.
5) To test hypothesis of a casual relationship between
variables.
6) To identify areas where research could make the
difference.
7) To predict future of events.

Features of Research
• The main objective of research is to find
out the answers to questions through the
application of systematic and scientific
way.
The following features of a good research
1. Objectivity.
2. Control.
3. Generalizability.
4. Free from personal biases.
5. Systematic and
6. Reproducible.
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Research Companies in India
1.Delphi Research Services Pvt ltd.
,Bangalore.
2. Diksha Research ,Coimbatore.
3. Market Plus, New Delhi.
4.Samsika Marketing Consultants
Pvt ltd,Mumbai.
5.Multiple Action Research Group,
New Delhi.
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1.Basic Research
• It is also known as pure orfundamental research.
• This research is mainly conducted to increase knowledge base.
• It is driven purely by interest and a desire to expand our
knowledge.
• Pure research can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
• Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories in
different fields.
• Basic research concentrates on fundamental principles and testing
theories.
• It is sometimes implicitly said that basic research doesn’t have
practical applications.

2.Applied Research
• Applied research is mainly related with solving
practical problems rather than focusing on
knowledge expansion.
• It is mainly used to find solutions to problems
which occur on a daily basis and develop new
innovative technologies.
• The main aim of applied research is to provide
better technologies for humans to enhance their
standard of living.

3.Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research involves collecting qualitative data
based on precise measurement using structure ,reliable
and validated data collections instrument or through
archival data sources
• Quantitative research is generally related with the
positivist concept.
• Objectivity is very vital in quantitative research.
• The aim of quantitative research is to develop
mathematical models, theories related to phenomenon.
• Quantitative research is mainly used in social sciences.

4.Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research involves collecting qualitative data given by way
of in depth interviews ,observations, field notes, open- ended
questions and significance of human behavior and experience,
including conflicting beliefs and emotions.
• The researcher himself is the primary data collection instrument and
the data could be collected in the form of words ,images patterns
etc.
• Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and
communication with the participants, e.g., through participant
observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
• It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically
analyzed.

5.Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of
an observable fact being studied.
• They cannot identify cause and effect relationship
between variables.
• Descriptive research answers questions such as who,
when, where, what and how.
• This type of research describes what exists and may help
to reveal new facts and meaning.
• The purpose of descriptive research is to observe,
describe and document.

6.Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is carried out for a problem
that has not been clearly defined.
• The main aim of this research is to gather initial
information which helps to define problems and
recommend hypothesis.
• Exploratory research helps to settle on the best
research design, data collection method and
selection of subjects.

6.Exploratory Research Conti..
• Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as
reviewing available literature, or qualitative approaches such as
informal discussions with consumers, employees, management
or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or
pilot studies.
• Exploratory research can mainly be conducted when researchers
lack clear idea of the problem.
• The results of exploratory research are not generally useful for
decision-making, but they can provide major insight into a given
situation.
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7.Historical Research
• It is defined as the type of research that examines past events or
combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has
happened in the past.
• Historical research is carried out to discover the unknown; answer
questions, recognize the relationship that the past has to the
present.
• Historical research can exhibit patterns that occurred in the past
and over time which can facilitate us to see where we came from
and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.
• We usually will notice that what we do today is expressly rooted in
the past.

8.Experimental Research
• It is commonly used in sciences such as psychology,
physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc.
• The main purpose of experimental research is to
establish a cause and effect relationship.
• Usually, one or more variables are manipulated to
establish their effect on a dependent variable.
• Experimental Research is mainly used when there is time
priority in a causal relationship.
• Experimental research is important to society as it helps
us to improve our daily lives.

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Research Process
• Most research textbooks represent research as a multi-stage process
that you must follow in order to undertake and complete your
research project.
• The precise number of stages varies, but they usually include
formulating and clarifying a topic, reviewing the literature, designing
the research, collecting data, analyzing data and writing up.
• Many students think that choosing their research topic is the most
exciting part of theircourse.
• Before you start your research you need to have at least some idea of
what you want to do.
• This is probably the most difficult, and yet the most important, part
of your research project.

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Research Process Stages
1) Formulating the Research Problem.
2) Extensive Literature Survey.
3) Developing the Research Hypothesis.
4) Preparing the Research Design.
5) Determining the Research Design.
6) Collecting the Research Data.
7) Execution of the Project.
8) Analysis of Data .
9) Hypothesis Testing.
10) Generalization and Interpretation and
11) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result .

1.Formulating the Research Problem.
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1.Formulating the Research Problem Conti…
• Formulating and clarifying the research topic is the starting point of yourresearch
project.
• Once you are clear about this, you will be able to choose the most appropriate
research strategy and data collection and analysis techniques.
• The formulating and clarifying process is time-consuming and will probably take
you up blind alleys .
• However, without spending time on this stage you are farless likely to achieve a
successful project.
• In the initial stages of the formulating and clarifying process you will be generating
and refining research ideas.
• However, before you start the formulating and clarifying process we believe that
you need to understand what makes a good research topic.
• The researcher must decide the general area of interest oraspect of a subject
matter.

2.Extensive Literature Survey
• Once the problem is formulated the
researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected
with the problem.
• For this purpose, the abstracting and
indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the
first place to go to academic journals,
conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc,. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the
problem.
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3.Development of Working Hypothesis
• After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis
is tentative assumption made to test its logical
or empirical consequences.
• Hypothesis testing begins with an
assumption called a Hypothesis.
• That we make about a population parameter.
• AHypothesis is a supposition made as a basis
for reasoning.
• According to Prof. Morris Hamburg,”A
Hypothesis in statistics is simply a
quantitative statement about a population”.
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Types of Hypothesis
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3.Development of Working Hypothesis Conti…
• In statistical theory a
hypothesis is an unproven
proposition orsupposition that
tentatively explains certain facts
or phenomena.
• A Hypothesis is a statement ,an
assumption about the nature of
the world.
• In its simplest form a
hypothesis is a guess.
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4.Research Design
• After framing hypothesis we
have to prepare a research
design i.e.
• we have to state the conceptual
structure within which research
would be conducted. In other
words, the function of research
design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence
with optimum effort, time and
expenditure.
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4.Research Design Conti…
• Aresearch design is simply the framework orplan for a
study that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the
data.
• It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
• Research design is the blue print for collection measurement
and analysis of data.
• Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the
research.

5. Determining Sample Design
• Sampling means selection of
individuals from the population.
• Asample design is a definite
plan determined before any
data is actually
collected for obtaining a sample
from a given population.
Sample designs can be either
probability or non-probability.
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6. Collecting the Data
• There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of cost, time
• Primary data can be collected either
through experiment or through survey.
In case of survey, data can be collected
by any one or more of the following
ways
- By observation.
- Through personal interview.
- Through telephonic interviews.
- By mailing of questionnaires and
- Through schedules.
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7. Execution of the Project
• Execution of project is a very
important step in the research
process.
• If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the
data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable .
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8. Analysis of Data
The analysis of data
requires a number of
closely related operations
to raw data through
coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical
inference.
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• After analyzing the data, the
researcher is in a position to test
the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
• Hypothesis testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis
orrejecting it.
9. Hypothesis Testing
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10. Generalizations and Interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and
upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization i.e. to
build a theory.
• If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some
theory.
• It is known as interpretation.
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11.Preparation of the Report or the Thesis
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him.
• The layout of the report should be as
follows; the preliminary pages, the main
text and end matter.
• The preliminary pages carry title,
acknowledgements and forward and
then index.
• The main text of the report should have
introduction, review of literature and
methodology.
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Syllabus : Conceptualization of Variables and Measurement& Types and
Measurement of Variables

Conceptualization of Variables and Measurement

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Variable
• An image, perception orconcept that is capable of measurement
– hence capable of taking on different values – is called a variable.
• In other words, a concept that can be measured is called a
variable.
Definition of Variable
• According to Kerlinger, ‘Avariable is a property that takes on
different values. Putting itredundantly, a variable is something
that varies … Avariable is a symbol to which numerals or values
are attached’
• Black and Champion define a variable as ‘rational units of
analysis that can assume any one of a number of designated sets
of values’.

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Examples of Variables
• Gender (male/female).
• Attitude.
• Age (xyears,ymonths).
• Income ($ per year).
• Weight ( __ kg).
• Height ( cm).
• Religion (Catholic, protestant, Jew, Muslim) etc.
Types and Measurement of Variables
• In research terminology, change variables are called independent variables.
• Outcome/effect variables are called dependent variables.
• The unmeasured variables affecting the cause-and-effect relationship are called
extraneous variables .
• The variables that link a cause-and-effect relationship are called intervening
variables.

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Measurement
• Measurement is central to any enquiry.
• Qualitative research mostly uses descriptive statements to seek
answers to the research questions.
• whereas in quantitative research these answers are usually sought on
one of the measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval ratio ).
• Stevens has classified the different types of measurement scale into
four categories.
1.Nominal orClassificatory scale.
2. Ordinal orRanking scale.
3. Interval scale.
4. Ratio scale .

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1.The Nominal or Classificatory Scale
• A nominal scale enables theclassification of individuals,
objects or responses based on a common/shared property
or characteristic.
• Avariable measured on a nominal scale may have one,
two ormore subcategories depending upon the extent of
variation .
• whereas the variable ‘gender’can be classified into two
subcategories: male and female.

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2.The Ordinal or Ranking scale
• An ordinal scale has all the properties of a nominal scale –
categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into
subgroups on the basis of a common characteristic – but also ranks
the subgroups in a certain order.
• They are arranged in either ascending or descending order
according to the extent that a subcategory reflects the magnitude of
variation in the variable.
• For example, income can be measured either quantitatively (in
dollars and cents) or qualitatively, using subcategories: ‘above
average’, ‘average’and ‘below average’ .
• These categories can also be developed on the basis of quantitative
measures, for example below $10000 = below average, $10000–$25
000 = average and above $25 000 = above average.) .

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3.The Interval Scale
• An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal
scale; that is, individuals or responses belonging to a
subcategory have a common characteristic and the
subcategories are arranged in an ascending ordescending
order.
• Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are examples of an interval
scale. In the Celsius system the starting point (considered
as the freezing point) is 0°C and the terminating point
(considered as the boiling point) is 100°C.

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4.The Ratio Scale
• A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal
and interval scales.
• Therefore, it is an absolute scale – the difference
between the intervals is always measured from a zero
point.
• This means the ratio scale can be used for
mathematical operations.
• The measurement of income, age, height and weight
are examples of this scale.

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Syllabus :Reliability and Validity in Measurement of
Variables

Reliability and Validity in Measurement of
Variables

Reliability and Validity
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Reliability and Validity Conti…
• Outside of statistical
research, r
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
a
n
d
v
a
l
i
d
i
t
y
a
r
e
used
interchangeably.
• For research and testing, there are subtle
differences.
• Reliability implies consistency: if you take
the any thing five times, you should get roughly
the same results every time.
• Atest is valid if it measures what it’s supposed
to.
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The Concept of Reliability
• Weuse the word ‘reliable’very often in our lives.
• When we say that a person is reliable, what do we mean?
We infer that s/he is dependable, consistent, predictable,
stable and honest.
• Reliability refers to the confidence we can place on the
measuring instrument to give us the same numeric value
when the measurement is repeated on the same object.
• Reliability means measuring instrument gives same
numeric value.
• The measurement repeat on same object.
• Reliability is the test and retest method.
• Reliability used for the internal consistency of data.
• Giving you the same results each time.
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Examples of Reliability
• For example there are many which can measure the number of
things a child can recall from his last one day s activities .
• If this instrument returns the same value when implemented on
the same child it is reliable instrument.
• Reliability is the degree to which one may expect to find the same
result if a measurement is repeated.
• If the measurement generates the same object twice and
correcting the results.
• If the measurement generates the same answer is repeated
attempts, it is reliable.

Validity
• Validity simply means that a test or
instrument is accurately measuring what it’s
supposed to.
• The object of assessing validity is to see how
accurate is the relationship between the
measure and the underlying trait it is trying to
measure.
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Validity Conti…
• Broadly, this concept of appropriateness and accuracy as
applied to a research process is called validity.
• Validity on the other hand means that our measuring
instrument actually measures the property it is supposed to
measure.
• As a researcher you can also be asked by others to establish
the appropriateness, quality and accuracy of the procedures
you adopted for finding answers to your research questions.

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Definition of Validity
According to Smith Validity is defined as “the degree
to which the researcher has measured what he has
set out to measure”.
• According to Babbie, “validity refers to the extent
to which an empirical measure adequately reflects
the real meaning of the concept under
consideration”.

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Types of Validity
1.Face Validity
2. Predictive validity
3.Content validity
4.Construct validity
1. Face validity
• The first step in assessing validity is called the face validity.
• Face validity establish whether the measuring device look like
it is measuring the correct characteristics.
• The face validity is done by showing the instrument to experts
and analyzing their responses qualitatively.

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• Experts however do not give much importance to face
validity.
2.Predictive validity
• Predictive validity means that the measurement should be
able to predict other measures of the same thing.
• For example if a student is doing well on the GMAT
examination, she should also do well during her MBA
Programme.
3. Content Validity
• It refers to the extent to which a measurement reflects the
specific intended domain of content.

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• For example if a researcher wants to assess the English
language skills of students and develops a measurement
which tests for how well the students can read such a
measurement clearly lacks content validity.
• English language skills include many other things besides
reading(writing ,listening etc.)
• To establish content validity researcher should first define the
entire domain of their study and then assess if the
instrument they are using truly represents this domain.
3. Construct Validity.
• This is the one of the most commonly used techniques in
social sciences.

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• Based on theory, it looks for expected patterns of
relationships among variables.
• Construct validity tries to establish an agreement
between the measuring instrument and theoretical
concepts.
• To establish construct validity one must first establish
a theoretical relationship and examine the empirical
relationship.

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Syllabus : Sources of Error in Measurement

Sources of Error in Measurement

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What do you mean by Error?
• AMistake
• The state of being wrong.
• An example of an erroris when you add 2+2 and get 5.
• An example of erroris when a mistake leads you to come to
the wrong collusion and you continue to believe this
incorrect conclusion.

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Sources of error in Measurement
• Errors in Measurement should be precise and unambiguous
in an ideal research study.
• This objective, however, is often not met with in entirety.
• As such the researcher must be aware about the sources of
errorin measurement.
• The following are the possible sources of errorin
measurement.

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Sources of error in Measurement Conti…
1.Respondent:
• At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong
negative feelings or it is just possible that he may have very
little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance.
• All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of
‘guesses.’
• Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may
limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and
fully.

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2.Situation:
• Situational factors may also come in the way of correct
measurement.
• Any condition which places a strain on interview can have
serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport.
• For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort
responses by joining in ormerely by being present.
• If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he
may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

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3.Measurer:
• The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or
reordering questions.
• His behavior, style and looks may encourage ordiscourage
certain replies from respondents.
• Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings.
Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty
tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the
data-analysis stage.

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4.Instrument:
• Errormay arise because of the defective measuring instrument.
• The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the
respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the
measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors.
• Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the
universe of items of concern.
• Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on
successfully meeting all of the problems listed above.
• He must, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or
otherwise deal with all the possible sources of errorso that the final
results may not be contaminated.

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Syllabus :Ethics In BusinessResearch

Ethics in Business Research
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Syllabus :Ethics in Business Research

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Meaning of Ethics?
• Ethics means moral principles that govern a person's
behavior orthe conducting of an activity.
• Ethics is defined as a moral philosophy orcode of morals
practiced by a person or group of people.
• At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles.
• Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and
society and is also described as moral philosophy.
• The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can
mean custom, habit, character or disposition.

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Ethics in Business Research
• Ethics in business research refers to a code of
conduct orexpected societal norm of behavior while
conducting research .
• Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the
members that sponsor the research.
• The researchers who undertake the research, and the
respondents who provide them with the necessary
data the observance of ethics begins with the person
instituting the research.

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Ethics in Business Research Conti…
• Ethical conduct should also be reflected in the behavior of the
researchers who conduct the investigation, the participants who
provide the data, the analysts who provide the results, and the entire
research team that presents the interpretation of the results and
suggests alternative solutions.
• Thus, ethical behavior pervades each step of the research process
data collection, data analysis, reporting, and dissemination of
information of the Internet, if such an activity is undertaken.
• How the subjects are treated and how confidential information is
safeguarded are all guided by business ethics.

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Ethics in Business Research Conti…
• There are business journals such as the journal of business
Ethics and the Business Ethics Quarterly that are mainly
devoted to the issue of ethics in business.
• The American Psychological Association has established
certain guideline for conducting research, to ensure that
organizational research is conducted in an ethical manner
and the interests of all concerned are safeguarded.

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Ethical issues to consider relating to the Researcher
1.Avoiding bias
• Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical.
• Bias is different from subjectivity.
• Bias is a deliberate attempt either to hide what you have found in your
study, or to highlight something disproportionately to its true
existence.
• It is absolutely unethical to introduce bias into a research activity.
• If you are unable to control your bias, you should not be engaging
in the research.
• Remember, it is the bias that is unethical and not the subjectivity.

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Ethical issues to consider relating to the Researcher Conti…
2. Using inappropriate research methodology
• Aresearcher has an obligation to use appropriate methodology,
within his/her knowledge base, in conducting a study.
• It is unethical to use deliberately a method or procedure you
know to be inappropriate to prove or disprove something that
you want to, such as by selecting a highly biased sample, using
an invalid instrument or by drawing wrong conclusions.

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Conti…
3. Incorrect reporting
• To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to
serve your own or someone else’s interest is unethical.
• Correct and unbiased reporting of the findings are important
characteristics of ethical research practice.
4. Inappropriate use of the information
• How will the information obtained from respondents be used by
the researcher?
• The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly affects
respondents adversely is unethical.

5. The misuse of informationConti…
• How is the sponsoring body going to use the information? How
is this likely to affect the study population? Sometimes
sponsoring organizations use research as a pretext for obtaining
management’s
agenda.
• It is unethical to let your research be used as a reason for
justifying management decisions.
• when the research findings do not support them. However, it is
recognized that it may be extremely difficult or even impossible
for a researcher to prevent this from happening .
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Syllabus
Unit - II: Research Design
Research Problem- purpose of Research design, Types of
Research Design- Experimental research design, Research
Design for cross sectional, longitudinal studies, Research design
for action research – Characteristics of the good research design.
Data Collection Methods & Tools: Types of Data, Sources and
Instruments for data, Guidelines for questionnaire, Sampling and
its application.

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Syllabus :ResearchDesign

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What is Design?
• APlan.
• a detailed proposal for doing orachieving something.
• a detailed map or diagram.

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Research Design
• Aresearch design is simply the framework orplan for
a study that is used as a guide in collecting and
analyzing the data.
• It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
• Research design is the blue print for collection
measurement and analysis of data.
• Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide
the research.

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Definition of Research Design
• According toWilliamZikmund“Researchdesign is a master
plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information.”
• According to Kerlinger“Researchdesign is the plan,
structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as
to obtain answers to research questions and to control
variance.”

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Syllabus: Research Problem

Research Problem
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What is a Problem?
The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different
definitions of the problem are given below
According to John Geoffery “Problem is the obstacle in the path of
satisfying our needs.”
According to John. G. Tornsand “Problem is a question which is to be
solved.”
According to F.N. Kerlinger “Aproblem is an interrogative sentence or
statement that asks: What relation exists between two ormore
variables?”

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The Sources of the Problem
• The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of
education are obvious sources.
• Record of previous research such specialized sources as the
encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research
• Bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations
and many similar publications are rich sources of research
problems.
• Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term
papers will suggest additional areas of needed research.
• Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of
ideas with faculty members and fellow scholars and students.
• The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor,
experts of the field and most experienced persons of the field.
They may suggest most significant problems of the area.

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The Sources of the Problem Cont…..
• Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are
the following.
(1) Theory of one’s own interest.
(2) Daily problems.
(3) Technological changes.
(4) Recent trends.
(5) Unexplored areas.
(6) Discussion with experts and research supervisor.

Research Problem
n
a
• The problems lie everywhere around us.
• Problem means difficulty deal anything.
• Aresearch problem, in general, refers to
some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a
theoretical orpractical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same.
• Selection of problem is not the first step i
research but identification of the problem
is the first step in research.
• It is wrong to think that identification of
problem means to select a topic of a
research or statement of the problem.
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Research Problem Conti…
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Research Problem Conti…
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Identification of a Research Problem
The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research
problem.
Step – I:
Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen
to do the research work.
Step – II:
The researcher should develop the mastery on the area orit
should be the field of hisspecialization.
Step - III :
He should review the research conducted in area to know the
recent trend and studies are being conducted in the area.

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Identification of a Research Problem Conti…
Step - IV :
On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of
the study.
Step -V :
He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ
his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take
help of supervisor or expert of thefield.
Step –VI:
He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be
investigated.

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Syllabus : Purpose of Research Design

Purpose of Research Design
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Purpose of Research Design
• The Purpose of research design is followed by …
1) To minimize the expenditure.
2) To facilitate the smooth scaling.
3) To collect the relevant data and technique.
4) To provide blue print for plans.
5) To provide an overview to other experts.
6) To provide a direction.

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1.To minimize the expenditure
• Research design will provide maximum information with
minimum spending of effort, money and time by
preparing the advance plan of all about the research.

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2.To facilitate the smooth scaling
• Research design is needed because it facilitates the
smooth scaling of the various research operations, there
by making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information .

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3.To collect the relevant data and technique
• Research design useful adopted for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be used
in their analysis.

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4.To provide blue print for plans
• Research design is needed due to the fact that it
allows for the smooth working of many research
operations.
• It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan
the methods.

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5.To provide an overview to other experts
• A research design provides an overview of all the research
process and with the help of the design we can take the help
and views of experts.
• The design helps the investigator to organize his ideas
,which helps to recognize and fix his faults.

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6.To provide a direction
• Aresearch design provides a proper or
particular direction to the other executives and
others who are helping us into the process.

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Syllabus: Types of Research Design

Types of Research Design
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A Classification of Research Designs
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I.Exploratory(Investigation) Research Design
• Exploratory research design is defined as an attempt to connect
ideas to understand want to explain what is going on.
• This type of research provides insight and understanding of
the problems.
• Exploratory research usually depend on direct observation of a
small selection of what is to be studied, for example, drinking
behavior.

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Examples of Exploratory Research Design
• The favorite crime investigation TV programs (e.g., Crime
Patrol, Arjun, Savdhaan India, etc) give a pretty good
example of the research design.
• These shows typically start with a crime that needs to be
investigated.
• The initial step is to look for hints which can help establish
what has happened (exploratory).
• The clues found in the exploratory phase of the research
usually point in the direction of a specific hypothesis or
explanation of the events which happened, and investigators
start focusing their efforts in this direction, performing
interviews with witnesses and suspects (descriptive).

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II.Conclusive(Decisive) Research Design
• Conclusive research design is defined by Malhatra, (1999) as
a research designed to assist the decision maker in deciding,
evaluating and choosing the better action course in a given
situation.
• Conclusive research may be either descriptive or
causal research design respectively.
• Conclusive research design, as the name implies, is applied
to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching
conclusions or decision-making.

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II.Conclusive Research Design Conti…
• As the term suggests, conclusive research is meant to provide
information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision-
making.
• It tends to be quantitative in nature, that is to say in the form
of numbers that can be quantified and summarized.
• The purpose of conclusive research is toprovide
a reliable or representative picture of the population through
the use of a valid researchinstrument.

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II.(i)Descriptive Research Design Conti…
• As the name implies, descriptive research methods are used
when the researcher wants to describe specific behavior as it occurs
in the environment.
• It can answer what, when, where, and how questions , but
not why questions.
• Adescriptive research design can use a wide variety of quantitative
and qualitative methods to investigate one or more variables.
• In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses
on describing the nature of a demographic(age, race, religion,
gender, family size, , income, and education )segment.

Demographic Segmentation
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II.(i).Descriptive Research Design Conti…
• Descriptive studies can also portray(describe (someone or
something) in a particular way buyer perceptions of
brands, audience profiles for media types viz. TV, radio,
newspaper, availability of distributors, product
consumption patterns, price sensitivity of consumers,
market share,etc.

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II.(i)Descriptive Research Design Conti…
• There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a
descriptive research project, and they are:
• Observational: defined as a method of viewing and
recording the participants.
• Case study: defined as an in-depth study of an individual or
group of individuals.
• Survey: defined as a brief interview or discussion with an
individual about a specific topic.

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II.(ii)Casual Research Design
• Causal research, also known as explanatory research is conducted in order to
identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships(Diseases).
• Causal studies focus on an analysis of a situation or a specific problem to
explain the patterns of relationships between variables.
• Experiments are the most popular primary data collection methods in
studies with causal research design.
• The investigation into an issue or topic that looks at the effect of one thing
or variable on another.
• For example, causal research might be used in a business environment to
quantify the effect that a change to its present operations will have on its
future production levels to assist in the business planning process.

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Examples of Casual Research Design
• To assess the impacts of foreign direct investment on the
levels of economic growth in India.
• To analyze the effects of re-branding initiatives on the levels
of customer loyalty.
• To identify the nature of impact of work process re-
engineering on the levels of employee motivation.

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II.(ii-i)Cross Sectional Design
• Across-sectional study is defined as an observational
research type that analyzes data of variables collected at one
given point of time across a sample population.
• Across-sectional study involves looking at data from a
population at one specific point in time.

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II.(ii-i)Cross Sectional Design Conti…
• The participants in this type of study are selected based on
particular variables of interest.
• Cross-sectional studies are often used in developmental
psychology but this method is also utilized in many other areas
including social science and education.
• For example, researchers studying developmental psychology
might select groups of people who are different ages but
investigate them at one point in time.
• By doing this, any differences between the age groups can
presumably be attributed to age differences rather than
something that happened over time.

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II.(ii-ii)Longitudinal Study
• A longitudinal study is an observational research method in
which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over
a period of time.
• Longitudinal research projects can extend over years oreven
decades.
• In a longitudinal cohort study, the same individuals are
observed over the study period.

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Some of the classic examples of surveys that can be used for
longitudinal studies are:
1.Market trends and brand awareness
• To understand a market trend and brand awareness, market
research survey and marketing survey works wonders.
• Through these surveys, businesses ororganizations can
know what customers want and what they will discard.
• This study can be carried over a period of time to
understand market trends as they are volatile and tend to
keep changing.

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Some of the classic examples of surveys that can be
used for longitudinal studies are: Conti…
2.Product feedback:
• If a business or a brand has launched a new product and
wants to know how is the product doing to the consumers
then product feedback surveys can be deployed.
• Feedback from customers about the product can be
collected over an extended period of time.
• Once the data is collected, businesses or brands can put this
feedback into practice.

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3.Customer satisfaction:
• Customer satisfaction survey help organization or
businesses to know the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction
amongst their customers.
• Customer satisfaction can be known for as long as a
business ororganization wishes.
• This study too can also go on foryears.

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4.Employee engagement:
• In organization or offices, the most important aspect of
management is employee engagement, how engaged or
disengaged employees are at the workplace.
• This is a continuous study, where employee engagement
surveys deployed to understand the level of their
engagement and appropriate feedback is collected and acted
on.

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II.(i_i_i)Single Cross Sectional Study
• Cross-sectional study is that it can compare different
population groups at a single point in time. ... Wewould
look only at cholesterol levels at one point in time.
• The benefit of a cross-sectional study design is that it
allows researchers to compare many different variables at
the same time.
• Atype of research design where one sample is drawn
from the population of interest only once.

Cross – Sectional Studies vs. Longitudinal Studies
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II.(i_i_ii)Multiple Cross Sectional Study
• In single cross sectional design, only one sample respondents
is drawn whereas in multiple cross sectional designs, there are
two ormore samples of respondents. ... Acohort(a group of people
with a shared characteristic) is a group of respondents who experience
the same event within the same time interval.
• Information take only once.
• Information from different samples is obtained different times
over long intervals.

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Syllabus:Experimental Research Design

Experimental Research Design
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Experimental Research Design
• Most of the students are familiar with the concept of
experimentation in the physical sciences.
• The word experiment conjures up an image of a chemist
surrounded us.
• Experimental research Design is any research conducted
with a scientific approach, where a set of variables are kept
constant while the other set of variables are being measured
as the subject of experiment.

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Experimental Research Design Conti..
• There are times when you don’t have enough data to support
your decisions.
• In such situations, you need to carry out experiments to
discover the facts.
• Experimental research Design can gather a lot of data that can
help you make better decisions.

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Experimental Research Design Conti…
• The simplest example of an experimental research design is
conducting a laboratory test.
• As long as research is being conducted under scientifically
acceptable conditions – it qualifies as an experimental
research.

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Experimental Research Design Conti…
• Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing
one of them to sunlight, while the other is kept away from
sunlight.
• Let the plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while
the latter is called sample B.
• If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample
Agrows and sample B dies, even though they are both
regularly wetted and given the same treatment.
• Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight will aid growth in
all similar plants.

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Why Use Experimental Research Design?
• Experimental research design can be majorly used in
physical sciences, social sciences, education, and
psychology.
• It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a
subject matter.
• Some uses of experimental research design are highlighted
below.

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1.Use in Medicine
• Experimental research is used to provide the proper
treatment for diseases.
• In most cases, ratherthan directly using patients as the
research subject, researchers take a sample of the bacteria
from the patient's body and are treated with the developed
antibacterial
• The changes observed during this period are recorded and
evaluated to determine its effectiveness.
• This process can be carried out using different
experimental research methods.

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2.Use in Education
• Asides from science subjects like Chemistry and Physics
which involves teaching students how to perform
experimental research, it can also be used in improving the
standard of an academic institution.
• This includes testing students' knowledge on different
topics, coming up with better teaching methods, and the
implementation of other programs that will aid student
learning.

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3.Use in Human Behavior
• Social scientists are the ones who mostly use experimental
research to test human behavior.
• For example, consider 2 people randomly chosen to be the
subject of the social interaction research where one person
is placed in a room without human interaction for 1 year.

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Syllabus: Research Design for Action Research

Research Design for ActionResearch
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Action Research Design
• Action research may also be called a c
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o
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,since it
typically follows a predefined process that is repeated over
time.
• Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the
action researcherand a client collaborate in the diagnosis of the
problem and in the development of a solution based on the
diagnosis”.
• In otherwords, one of the main characteristic traits of action
research relates to collaboration between researcher and
member of organization in order to solve organizational
problems.

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Action Research Design Conti..
• The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic
cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where
an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made
for some form of interventionary strategy.
• Then the intervention is carried out (the action in Action
Research) during which time, pertinent observations are
collected in various forms.

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Action Research Design Conti..
• The new interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic
process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of
(or implement able solution for) the problem is achieved.
• The protocol is iterative orcyclical in nature and is intended to
foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving
through several interventions and evaluations.

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Syllabus: Characteristics of AGood Research Design

Characteristics of A Good ResearchDesign
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Selection of Basis Research Design
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Introduction
• Generally a good research design minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental erroris
reported to be the best design in scientific investigation.
• Agood research design possesses the following
characteristics.

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1. Objectivity ( a lack of bias, judgment )
• It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection
and scoring of the responses.
• The research design should permit the measuring instruments
which are fairly objective in which every observer orjudge
scoring the performance must precisely give the same report.
• This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be
capable of analysis and interpretation.

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2.Reliability
• It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements.
• a medical thermometer is a reliable tool that would measure
the correct temperature each time it is used.
• For example, if a person weighs themselves during the course
of a day they would expect to see a similar reading.
• For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a
particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that
item even if he is asked repeatedly.
• If he is changing his response to the same item, the
consistency will be lost.
• So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in
such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

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3. Validity
• Validity simply means that a test or instrument is
accurately measuring what it’s supposed to.
• Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid
when it measures what it is expected to measure.
• Reliability is about the consistency of a measure,
and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

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4.Generalizability(Assembling)
• Aresearch design helps an investigator to generalize his
findings provided he has taken due care in defining the
population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate
statistical analysis etc.
• Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically
prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible.
• For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our
research problem has the following characteristics..

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4.Generalizability Conti….
• The problem is clearly formulated.
• The population is clearly defined.
• Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used
to form an appropriate sample.
• Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.
• The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

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5.Adequate Information
• The most important requirement of good research design is
that it should provide adequate information so that the research
problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective.
• An ideal design should take into account important factors like;
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
(ii) The objective of the research
(iii) The process of obtaining information
(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and
(v)The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying
research.

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6. Other Features
• Some other important features of a good research design are
flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so
on.
• Agood research design should minimize bias and maximize
reliability and generalization.

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Syllabus: Data Collection Methods and Tools, Types of
Data, Sources and Instruments for Data

Data Collection Methods and Tools
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What is Data,Methods&Tools?

Meaning of Data?
• Data means Information.
• Information means Insights.
• APiece of information.
• Data are numerical fact is and figures that
are collected through some type of
measurement process.
• Collection of facts from which conclusions
may be drawn.
• Data is a collection of facts, such as
numbers, words, measurements,
observations or just descriptions of things.
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Meaning of Data Cont…
• In mathematical and statistical analysis, data is defined as a
collected group of information.
• Information, in this case, could be anything which may be
used to prove or disprove a scientific guess during an
experiment.
• Data collected may be age, name, a person's opinion, type
of pet, hair color etc.
• Although there is no restriction to the form this data may
take, it is classified into two main categories depending on
its nature.

Meaning of Methods?
• a procedure orprocess for
attaining an object.
• The definition of a method is a
system ora way of doing
something.
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Meaning of Tools
• a device orimplement, especially one held in
the hand, used to carry out a particular
function.
• implement, tool, instrument, appliance,
utensil mean a relatively simple device for
performing work. implement may apply to
anything necessary to perform a task.
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Data Collection Methods and Tools
• Data means observations or evidences.
• Data are both qualitative and quantitative
in nature.
• The most important aspect of research is
data collection.
• The reliability of decisions depends on the
quality of data.
• The data can be classified into primary and
secondary data.
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1.Primary Data
• The reliability of managerial decisions depends
on the quality of data.
• The data can be classified to primary data and
secondary data.
• The data which are collected from the field under
the control and supervision of an investigator is
known as primary data.
• The primary data are generally a fresh and
collected for the first time.
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Examples of Primary Data
• The data collected using a survey to determine the market
segment of the production of the product of a company.
• Data of a study to determine the infrastructure the
infrastructure facilities of education institutions in a state.
• Data a study to determine the morale of the employees in a
company.

2.Secondary Data
• If data are collected from journals
,magazines,governement publications,
annual reports of companies,etc., then such
data are called as secondary data.
• In each of these sources of data ,the
process of data collection has already been
done by the respective organization/agency.
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2.Secondary Data Conti..
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Difference between Primary and Secondary Data
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Difference between Primary and Secondary data Conti…
• The primary data of one study will serve as secondary data of
another study.
• For example the census data of a country is an example of
primary data find the size of its population.
• This in turn will serve as data to plan public distribution system
of each talk of different districts in each state of the country.
• The same data under such situation is called as secondary data.
• The industry handbook is an example of primary data by
researchers in management and commerce.

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Methods of Primary data
• The primary data are useful for current studies as well as
for the future studies.
• Hence it should be collected with utmost care.
• The different methods which are used for primary data
collection they are
1. Observation method
2. Personal interview
3. Telephone interview and
4. Mail survey

1. Observation Method
• In this method the investigator will collect data
through personal observation.
• For example the investigator collect about the
organizational climate in an organizational
through direct observation.
• In this study the investigator will speak to the
employees at different levels of the organization
the behavior of the employees to asses the
organizational climate.
• Continuous monitoring of stock exchange Index
and share prices moments through news papers
and magazines is an example of observation
method..
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1. Observation Method Conti…
• Generally observation method of data collection deals with the
recording of the behavior of respondents/sampling units.
• For example take the behavior of customers in bank like filling the
documents informing the bankers any amount deducted from there
account, casual discussions, time spent fro read notice boards ads.etc.
will be observed by the investigator.
• The identify of the customer should not be revealed to the customer.
• This method is very helps capture the behavior of customers directly.
• But this method is time consuming and costly exercise.
• Also it suffers from personnel biases of investigators which will dissert
the findings.

2.Personal Interviews
• An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two
individuals with the sole purpose of collecting relevant
information to satisfy a research purpose.
• Interviews are of different types.
• The components of personal interviews are the researcher, the
interviewer, interviewee.
• Under the guidance of researcher several interviewers will be
sent with questionnaire to meet respondents/interviewees of
the survey for seeking information.
• The personal interview can be classified into doorto - door
interview executive interview, mall intercept surveys, self
administrated questionnaires and purchase intercept
technique.
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(i).In door - to - door interviewing
• In this method the interviewer will go to the
residence of each selected
respondents/customers and obtain reposes
for the items in the questionnaire by direct
interviewing with him/her for consumer
goods or any other topic of study.
• This is detail in-depth survey method which
seeks responses with better precision.
• It is time consuming and costly process.
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(ii) .Executive Interviewing
• This is same as door to door interviewing
except that the interviewees are industrial
executives and the products are industrial
goods’
• This is a costly and time consuming
process.
• The average waiting time of the
interviewers at the offices of the
executives before commencing the
interview process is too long because of
the busy schedule of the executives.
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(iii).Mall Intercept Interview
• This is conducted in shopping complexes
where a diverse spectrum of customers can be
interviewed.
• The people who passes through that place will
be used as respondents for filling the
questionnaire.
• This method ,the interviewers are stationed in
a particular place of an area the people who
come to that area will be sampled and served
with questionnaires.
• Hence ,it is a less costly and quick responses.
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(iv).Self-Administered Interview
• In this method the respondents will be issued with
questionnaire and they will be asked to fill them
on their own.
• This means that the interviewers will be absent
while filling the questionnaires.
• This method has the advantage of removing
interviewees bias.
• But the absence of the interviewers will make the
respondents to assume some irrelevant responses
for some open ended questions for which the
respondents have limited knowledge/doubt.
• It is less costly and quick process.
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(v).Purchase Intercept Technique
• This technique is a direct interviewing method in which the
customers will be intercepted and interviewed after they select
their items from the showroom.
• The main advantage of this method is that it will enable the
buyers to have betterrecall and compare the product of interest
with completing brands with grater accuracy since they are yet
to who complete the buying process
• But in this method the sampling is restricted to the buyers who
completed the selection of some items to buy.
• Hence a complete randomized selection of sampling units is
prohibited in this method.

3.Telephone Interview
• Telephone interview is considered t be a cost effective
and dominate data collection method because of
The travel time of interviewers is totally eliminated
The cost of travel of interviewers is also eliminated to
Grater possibility of reaching the customers all over the
geography.
Total time of conducting the interview of the sample is
lest when compared to other methods.
Grater possibility of random selection of respondents
among the population having telephone connection.
There is a greater probability of reaching the
respondents unlike the non responses problems of
personal interview.
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3.Telephone Interview Conti..
• The components of the telephone interview are the same as the
personal interview,viz., the researcher ,the interviewer,
interviewee and the interview environment.
• The unique features of telephone interview are selecting
telephone numbers ,call outcomes, call timing and call report.

4.Mail Survey
• Mail survey is a data collection method in
which questionnaire are mailed to potential
respondents who in turn fill and return
them at their convenience.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of mail survey
Advantages
• Less cost of data collection.
• Less time of data collection.
• Widercoverage of population.
• Better accuracy of data.
• Absence of interviewersbias.
Disadvantages
• The identity of the respondents is
not known to the interviewers
• The questionnaire may be filled in
by assistant /family members of
the respondents.
• Some respondents may not return
filled –in questionnaire.
• There may be delay from the part
of the respondents in returning
the filled –in questionnaires.

5.Questionnaire
• The success of survey methods depends
on the strength of the questionnaireused.
• A questionnaire consists of a set of well –
formulated questions to probe and obtain
responses from respondents .
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1.Open Ended Questions
• In this type of questions , the interviewer write the answer
of the respondents verbatim(exactly the same words as were used originally).
• The open ended questions may be bring unconventional(not
based on ) answers which are not known to the researcher.
• Generally ,this type of question is used for probing
(inquiry)type question, introductory question to get opinion
about the components of the system of study
Example: What are the reasons for availing housing loan?

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2.Close Ended Questions
Close ended questions are structured questions.
It has two formats.
1. Questions with multiple responses out of which the
respondents have to select one ormore choices.
2. Questions with rating scale with discrete responses or
continuous range.

Difference Between Open and Closed ended Questions
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0
6.Schedule
• When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for
interview purpose it is known as schedule.
• Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions,
which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to
face situation with another.”
• Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and
presented with the specific purpose of testing an
assumption or hypothesis.
• In schedule method interview occupies a central and
plays a vital role.

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Sources Secondary of data
• Secondary data are collected from sources which gave been
already created for the purpose of first time user and future
uses..
• The secondary data collection involves less cost, time and effort.
• Some times more accurate data can be obtained only from
secondary data.
• Some times it may not suit for the present purpose.
• Sometimes it may be outdated and may not meet the
requirement of the present study.

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Sources of Secondary Data
The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two
broad categories:
1.Published sources, and
2.Unpublished sources.
1. Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish
statistical data, and chief among them are explained below:
(a) International Publications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like
I.M.F, I.B.R.D, and U.N.O who publish regular and
occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.

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Sources of Secondary Data Conti…
2.Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished
sources like records maintained by various government and
private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars
in the universities orinstitutions etc.

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What is a Data Collection Tool?
• Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used
to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-
assisted interviewing system.
• Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews, Observation
sometimes, and Surveys orQuestionnaires are all tools used
to collect data.

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Syllabus :Guidelines forQuestionnaire

Guidelines for Questionnaire
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Meaning of Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is alist of questions sent to a number of
persons for them to answer.
• Aquestionnaire, whether it is called a schedule interview or
measuring instruments form is a formalized set of questions for
obtaining information from respondents.
• Questionnaire design is one of the important areas of research.
• It is most commonly used.
• The accuracy and relevancy of data collected depends upon the
questionnaire.

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Guidelines/Techniques for Designing Questionnaires
• The key point to remember about questionnaire design is to
make the interview possible for all those using the document.
• It has to have the following characteristics
1) ALogical Sequence
• This is important as the questions much follow on logically.
• If they do, the interviewer will establish and maintain a
rapport and collect the data required without interruptions
caused by inappropriate construction or repetitive questions.
• Intrusive questions are more likely to be answered if they
are inserted in to the sequence once the rapport has been
established ad built.

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Guidelines/Techniques for Designing Questionnaires Conti…
2) Good Wording
• The successful questions or the questions that ensure that a
survey is successful are those that are shortly, specific, clear
and unambiguous.
• Try to help the informant by specifying clearly what you want
to evaluate and where possible show examples an illustration
with detailed descriptions.

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Guidelines/Techniques for Designing Questionnaires Conti…
3) Write a clear layout
• Aquestionnaire is working document.
• A question, the possible list of a answer preceded an the questionnaire the
instructions to the interviewers, and the analysis instructions all have to be
clear so the interviewer does not get confused orreads out the wrong words.
• Distinguish between all of these verycarefully.
• Interviewer’s instruction should be in capital and underlined.
• Hand our cards and visual prompts should be large enough to read by the
informants with poor sight.
• If the next question to be asked depends the answer to the current
question, routing and ‘slip’instructions should be printed alongside the
relevant answer clearly to help of logic sequence.

2/3/2021
Syllabus: Sampling and its Application

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3
Asurvey may be conducted by twomethods
1. Census Method or Parametric Method and
2. Sampling Method.

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1. Census Method or Parametric Method
• It deals with the investigation of the entire population.
• Here the data are collected foreach and every unit of the
universe.
• This method provides more accurate and exact information
as no unit is left out.

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2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method
• Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole
universe.
• It works with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable
information about the universe with minimum of cost, time and
energy .
• It makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less
time, money and material.
• Its more popular in research work.

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Sample or Census
• The objective of most marketing research projects is to obtain
information about the characteristics or parameters of a
population.
• A population is theaggregate of all the elements that share
some common set of characteristics and that comprise the
universe for the purpose of the marketing research problem.
• Information about population parameters may be obtained by
taking a census or a sample.

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Sample or Census Conti…
• A census involves a complete enumeration of the elements of
a population.
• The population parameters can be calculated directly in a
straightforward way after the census is enumerated.
• A sample, on the other hand, is asubgroup of the population
selected for participation in the study.
• Sample characteristics, called statistics, are then used to make
inferences about the population parameters.

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Population
• Population oruniverse means, the entire mass of
observations, which is the parent group from which a
sample is to be formed.
• The term population oruniverse conveys a different
meaning than a traditional one.
• But in Research Methodology population means
characteristics of a specific group.
• Sampling means selection of individuals from the
population .

Population Example
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0

Population and Sample
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Definition of Sample
• A
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
t
o
P
.
Y
.
Y
o
u
n
g
“
Astatistical sample is a miniature picture
orcross –section of the entire
roup oraggregate from which the sample is
taken.”.
• According to Good and Hatt, “Asample as the
name implies, is a smaller representation of a
larger whole.”

What is the Need of Sampling?
1.Economy of time.
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4.Utility in experimental
study.
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Advantages of Sampling
1) It has a greater adaptability.
2) It is an economical technique.
3) It has high speed for generalization.
4) This technique has great accuracy.
5) It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
6) It has a greater scope in the field of research.
7) It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

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Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling
1. Scope of biasness(Less accuracy).
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4.Instability of sample subjects orchangeability of
units i.e. in heterogeneous population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is
possible.

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Characteristics of a Good Sample
1.A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
3.Agood sample is free from bias; the sample does not
permit prejudices.
4. Agood sample is an objective one.
5.Agood sample maintains accuracy, It yields an accurate
estimates or statistics and does not involve errors.
6.Agood sample is comprehensive in nature.
Comprehensiveness is a quality.
7. Agood sample has the practicability forresearch

A classification of Sampling Techniques
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Probability And Non- Probability Sampling Techniques
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9

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I. Probability Sampling or Random Sampling
Types Probability sampling
“Aprobability sample is one that has been used selected in such a way
that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.
1.Simple Random orRandom Sampling
• It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. asample
selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample and this
technique is simple randomizing.

Randomization is done by using the following techniques
a. Tossing a coin
b. Throwing a dice
c. Lottery method
d. Tippett’s table method
e. Blind folded method
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Merits and Demerits of Simple or Random Sampling
Merits
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.
2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.
4.The observations of the sample can be used for inferential
purpose.
Demerits
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.
2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.
3.Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the
sample .

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2. Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random
sampling.
• This method requires the complete information about the
population.
• There should be a list of information of all the individuals of
the population in any systematic way.
• Now we decide the size of the sample:
• Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N
• Thus for this technique of sampling population should be
arranged in any systematic way.

Example of Systematic Sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Systematic Sampling
Merits
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
2. It reduces the field cost.
3. Inferential statistics may be used.
4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
5.Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions
and generalizations.
Demerits
1.This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to
different ways of systematic list by different individuals.
2. Knowledge of population is essential.
3. Information of each individual is essential..
4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
5.There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of
the sample.

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3. Stratified Sampling
• It is an improvement over the earlier methods.
• When we employ this technique, the researcher divides
his population into strata on the basis of some
characteristics and from each of these smaller
homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a
predetermined number of units.
• Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion
which seems to be more relevant in his research work.

Example of Stratified Sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Stratified Sampling
Merits
1. It is a good representative of the population.
2. It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.
3. It is an objective method of sampling.
4. Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits
1. Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to
decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
2. It is costly and time consuming method.
3. Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but
not for the other.
4. There is a risk of generalization.

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4. Multi Stage Sampling
• This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the
population.
• In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive
groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these
ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only
one group.
• Stages of a population are usually available within a group or
population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher.
• The individuals are selected from different stages for
constituting the multistage sampling.

Example of Multistage Sample
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Merits and Demerits of Multi Stage Sampling
Merits
1. It is a good representative of the population.
2. Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.
3. It is an objective procedure of sampling.
4. The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential
purpose.
Demerits
1. It is a difficult and complex method of sampling.
2. It involves errors when we consider the primary stages.
3. It is again a subjective technique of sampling .

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5. Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling
•
• Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings.
• This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample.
• When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more
representative sample.
• This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return
them.
• Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the query
differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied.
• To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the
people interviewed to obtain the desired information.
• Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling.
• This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained
from first sample.
Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and information obtained is used to draw
the next sample to examine the problem further.

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6. Cluster Sampling
• To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster
sampling.
• In cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of
element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in
the population.
• Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given
city and randomly selecting 15 %of these students for the
sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the
city, selects at random 15 %of these clusters of units, and
uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample.

Cluster Sampling Example
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Merits and Demerits of Cluster Sampling
Merits
1. It may be a good representative of the population.
2. It is an easy method.
3. It is an economical method.
4. It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
5. Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits
1. Cluster sampling is not free from errors.
2. It is not comprehensive.

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2.Non-Probability Or Non Random Sampling Methods
Samples which are selected through non-random methods
are called non probability samples.

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1.Incidental or Convenience or Accidental Sampling
• The term incidental oraccidental applied to those samples
that are taken because they are most frequently available i.e.
this refers to the groups which are used as samples of a
population because they are readily available orbecause the
researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling
methods.

Example of Accidental Sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Incidental or Accidental Sampling
Merits
1. It is very easy method of sampling.
2. It is frequently used method in behavioral sciences.
3. It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical
method.
Demerits
1. It is not representative of the population.
2. It is not free from errors.
3. Parametric statistics cannot be used.

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0
2. Judgment or purposive orsubjective Sampling
• This involves the selection of a group from the population
on the basis of available information assuming as if they
are representative of the entire population.
• Here group may also be selected on the basis of
intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be
self-evident.
• Generally investigator should take the judgment sample
so this sampling is highly risky.

Example of purposive sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Judgmental or purposive or subjective
Sampling
Merits
1. Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of
sampling.
2.This method of sampling is economical.
Demerits
3. This technique is objective.
5. It includes uncontrolled variation.
6. Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this
sampling, so generalization is not possible.

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3. Quota Sampling
• This combines both judgment sampling and probability
sampling on the basis of judgment or assumption or the
previous knowledge.
• The proportion of population falling into each category is
decided.
• Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the
observer is allowed to sample as he likes.
• Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in
municipal surveys.

Example of Quota Sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Quota Sampling
Merits
1. It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
2. It is an easy sampling technique.
3.It is not frequently used in social surveys.
Demerits
4. It is not a representative sample.
6. It has the influence of regional , geographical and social
factors.

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4. Snowball Sampling
• The term snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in
which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as he observation or study
proceeds.
• The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow
computation of estimates of sampling errorand use of statistical test of
significance.
• For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand
of cigarette.
• At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be
identified to be the smokers of thatbrand.
• At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the names of other persons
known to the first stage subjects.
• Thus the subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of more
subjects and the sample goes on increasing.

Example of Snowball Sampling
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Merits and Demerits of Snowball Sampling
Merits
1. Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be no
probabilistic can be converted into probabilistic by
selecting subjects randomly within each stage.
Demerits
1. Sampling errors may creep in.

Choosing non-probability vs. probability sampling
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Syllabus
a) Tabulation of Univariate, Bivariate and multivariate data, Data
classification and tabulation, Diagrammatic and graphical
representation of data. One dimensional, two dimensional and
three-dimensional diagrams and graphs
b) Small Sample Tests - t-Distribution-properties and
applications, testing for one and two means,
paired t-test.

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Syllabus : Tabulation and Tabulation of Univariate

Tabulation and Tabulation of Univariate
2/3/2022 277

2/3/2022 278
Tabulation or Tabular Presentation
• After the collection and classification of data, process of tabulation
begins.
• Tabulation is dependent upon classification.
• Tabulation is necessary in order to make the data understandable and
organized.
• Tabulation is another method of summarizing and presenting data
systematically in rows and columns.
• Tabulation means a systematic arrangement of statistical data, in rows
and columns.
• Tabulation tries to give the maximum information contained in the data
in minimum possible spaces, without sacrificing the quality and
usefulness of thedata.
• It is a mid way process between the collection of data and statistical
analysis.

2/3/2022 279
Tabulation or Tabular Presentation
• Tabulating is a way of processing information or data by putting it in a
table.
• It refers to a table, or chart, with rows and columns.
• When tabulating, you might have to make calculations.
• Tabulation is a systematic & logical presentation of numeric data in rows
and columns, to facilitate comparison and statistical analysis.
• It facilitates comparison by bringing related information close to each
other and helps in further statistical analysis and interpretation.
• To put it in other words, the method of placing organized data into a
tabular form is called as tabulation.
• It may be complex, double or simple depending upon the nature of
categorization.

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0
Definition of Tabulation
• According to Connor “ATabulation involves the arbitrary
and systematic presentation of numerical data in a form
designed to elucidate the problem under consideration”.
• According to Blain “Tabulation in its broadest sense ,is an
arbitrary arrangement of data in columns and rows”.

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Objectives of Tabulation
1) Easy to understand.
2) To enable comparative study.
3) Saving the time.
4) Easy to remember.
5) To Clarify the purpose of enquiry.
6) Reveals pattern.

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An ideal statistical table should contain the following items:
(i) Table number: A number must be allotted to the table for
identification, particularly when there are many tables in a study.
(ii) Title: The title should explain what is contained in the table. It
should be clear, brief and set in bold type on top of the table. It
should also indicate the time and place to which the data refer.
(iii)Date: The date of preparation of the table should be given.
(iv)Stubs, or, Row designations: Each row of the table should be
given a brief heading. Such designations of rows are called
“stubs”, or, “stub items” and the entire column is called
“stub column”.

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An ideal statistical table should contain the following items Conti…
(v)Column headings, or, Captions: Column designation is given
on top of each column to explain to what the figures in the
column refer. It should be clear and precise. This is called
a “caption”, or, “heading”. Columns should be numbered if
there are four, or, more columns.
(vi)Body of the table: The data should be arranged in such a
way that any figure can be located easily. Various types of
numerical variables should be arranged in an ascending order,
i.e., from left to right in rows and from top to bottom in
columns. Column and row totals should be given.

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An ideal statistical table should contain the following items Conti…
(vii)Unit of measurement: If the unit of measurement is uniform
throughout the table, it is stated at the top right-hand corner of the table
along with the title. If different rows and columns contain figures in
different units, the units may be stated along with “stubs”, or, “captions”.
Very large figures may be rounded up but the method of rounding should
be explained.
(viii) Source:At the bottom of the table a note should be added indicating
the primary and secondary sources from which data have been collected.
(ix)Footnotes and references: If any item has not been explained properly,
a separate explanatory note should be added at the bottom of the table.

Format of Tabulation
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Example of Tabulation
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2/3/2022 287
Tabulation of Univariate
• Univariate analysis is the simplest form of analyzing data. “Uni” means “one”, so
in other words your data has only one variable.
• It doesn’t deal with causes orrelationships (unlike regression) and it’s major
purpose is to describe; it takes data, summarizes that data and finds patterns in
the data.
• univariate analysis is just a condition or subset that your data falls into. You can
think of it as a “category.” For example, the analysis might look at a variable of
“age” or it might look at “height” or “weight”. However, it doesn’t look at more
than one variable at a time.
• Univariate is a term commonly used in statistics to describe a type of data which
consists of observations on only a single characteristic orattribute.
• Asimple example of univariate data would be the salaries of workers in industry.
• Another example of a variable in univariate analysis might be "age". Another
might be "height".

The following frequency distribution table shows one variable (left column) and the
count in the right column.
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Univariate Descriptive Statistics
• Some ways you can describe patterns found in univariate
data include central tendency (mean, mode and median)
and dispersion: range , variance, maximum,
minimum, quartiles (including the interquartile range),
and standard deviation.

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Syllabus :Tabulation of Univariate ,Bivariate and MultivariateData

Tabulation of Univariate ,Bivariate and
Multivariate Data
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Univariate Data
• This type of data consists of only one variable.
• The analysis of univariate data is thus the simplest form of
analysis since the information deals with only one quantity
that changes.
• It does not deal with causes or relationships and the main
purpose of the analysis is to describe the data and find
patterns that exist within it.

Univariate Data Conti..
The example of a univariate data can be height.
2/3/2022 293

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