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Collecting qual data
- 1. Slide 1 MANG6129 MANG7001 Research Methods 2011-12 Collecting qualitative data
- 2. Slide 2 MANG6129 You familiar with these terms?? • Population • Sample • Probability and Non-probability sampling • Primary Data & Secondary Data
- 3. Slide 3 MANG6129 Qualitative data collection methods • Observation • Interviews & Focus Groups • Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic) • Life Histories • Narrative / story telling • Secondary qualitative data • Multiple Methods
- 4. Slide 4 MANG6129 What will be your data collection method ? • Purpose of your research • How much time you have • Your personal characteristics • Organisational access • Ethical considerations
- 5. Slide 5 MANG6129 Who and how many?
- 6. Slide 6 MANG6129 Who and how many? • Non-probability sampling – Purposive sampling – Snowball sampling – Convenience sampling – Quota sampling Saunders et al (2009)
- 8. Slide 8 MANG6129 Observation • Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather first hand data on events, processes, or behaviours. • Observer can use senses and technology to recoded events , process or behaviours. • Extended period of time
- 9. Slide 9 MANG6129 Observation Can be •Non-participatory •Semi-participatory •Participatory Can be Structured and unstructured Can be Covert and overt
- 10. Slide 10 MANG6129 Advantages of observation • Explains ‘what is going on here?’ • Heightens researcher awareness • Useful in researcher’s own organisation • Experience emotions ‘for real’ • Lots of useful data
- 11. Slide 11 MANG6129 Disadvantages of observation • ‘Observer effect’ • Very time consuming • Ethical dilemmas • Role conflict (researcher vs colleague) • Observer bias (going native) • Very demanding (physically and emotionally) • Access issues • Data recording difficulties
- 12. Slide 12 MANG6129 Interviews & Focus Groups
- 13. Slide 13 MANG6129 Interviews • Definition – A purposeful discussion between two or more people • Use in research: – Preliminary: helps to clarify issues when formulating research proposals – Data gathering: provides rigorous data for subsequent analysis – Validation: helps to explore whether research conclusions are reasonable
- 14. Slide 14 MANG6129 Saunders et al (2006) Forms of interview
- 15. Slide 15 MANG6129 Structured Interviews • All questions (and most responses) are pre-determined • Researcher is administering a questionnaire • Approaches - Face-to-face, telephone, webcam • Gathering structured data: – Higher response rate than postal questionnaires – Researcher has ability to clarify questions, not possible with questionnaire – No unexpected issues can be explored
- 16. Slide 16 MANG6129 Semi-structured Interviews • Based on list of themes & issues – Used to focus discussion • No rigid list is adhered to • Approach - Face-to-face • List of themes may be advised to interviewee • Usually more emergent, less pre-defined, data • Flexibility to explore particular and/or unexpected issues
- 17. Slide 17 MANG6129 Unstructured Interviews • Based on ideas of issues, but no list of questions or themes • Mostly face-to-face • Non-directive: researcher follows issues and themes as they emerge • In-depth: research may concentrate on key emergent issues without feeling need to cover pre-determined list of questions/themes
- 18. Slide 18 MANG6129 Focus Groups • Also called “Group Interview” • Unstructured & Free flowing • Research = Facilitator – Raise questions, let the group discuss • Multiple views • Group evaluation • Identify key themes • Potential problem of ‘group think’
- 19. Slide 19 MANG6129 Types of questions… •Closed vs. open – Where do you live? – What time is it? – Are you happy with your current supplier? – Would you like to find a better supplier? http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
- 20. Slide 20 MANG6129 Types of questions… • Who, why, where, when, how and what • Closed vs. open – What did you do on you holidays? – How do you keep focused on your work? – Why is that so important to you? – How have you been after your operation? http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
- 21. Slide 21 MANG6129 Types of questions… To Do •Probing… ‘can you tell me more about that?’ •Active listening… ‘so what you’re saying is…’ Avoid •Loaded/biased •Double barrelled Saunders et al (2009)
- 22. Slide 22 MANG6129 Practical Issues • Location • Recording data – Tape/video recording • Gives accurate account • Can concentrate on questioning & listening; • BUT… intrusive? – Note taking • Difficulty of writing, listening, and questioning • Taking notes after the interview may be dangerous, as relying on “accurate” memory • Transcription • Feeding back results
- 23. Slide 25 MANG6129 How should you dress for data collection?… 1. Casual 2. Smart
- 24. Slide 26 MANG6129 Some other tips for interviews • Do a pilot study or interview a ‘critical friend’ • Allow plenty of travel time • Take the respondent’s contact details with you • Remember notes, pens, tape recorder, spare batteries, etc, etc. • Remember… the interview doesn’t finish until you leave the premises • Agree post-interview actions
- 25. Slide 27 MANG6129 Reflexive diaries • Daily record of actions, events, thoughts • Quantitative (logs) or qualitative (diaries) • Alternative to direct observation • Issues of bias, motivation, misreporting • Use as a basis for subsequent in-depth interviews Hussey & Hussey (1997, pp.153-155)
- 26. Slide 28 MANG6129 Photo/video diaries Photos: Emma Lynch via http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/americas_harvest_in_caracas/html/1.stm. Photo journal: Harvest in Caracas Changing the way Venezuelan city dwellers think about food through the creation of organic urban gardens to promote self-sufficiency
- 28. Slide 30 MANG6129 Life Histories • Unstructured interviews combined with personal documents (diaries, letters, photos) • Look back in detail over an entire life course • Try to make sense of their organisational reality Bryman and Bell (2003)
- 29. Slide 31 MANG6129 Narrative in Research • Originates in linguistics • Used as research method & tool in various disciplines including: – Information Systems, Accounting, Economics, Organisational Behaviour • At the extreme end of qualitative research
- 30. Slide 32 MANG6129 Aims of Narrative Research • Gain insight into participant’s experience of an event and how they make sense of it (Organisational Sensemaking – Weick, 1995) – Imposes order on experiences, events, actions, and the relationship between them • Gather different perspectives about the same event • Understanding interdependency between numerous social factors and the change that underpins the complexity • Telling and analysis of stories • Good for uncovering deep understanding of politics or culture • Very subjective, requires understanding of context
- 31. Slide 33 MANG6129 Online Narrative Resources… • The Center for Narrative Studies – http://www.storywise.com/ • Organizational Storytelling – http://www.organizational-storytelling.org.uk/
- 32. Slide 34 MANG6129 Secondary qualitative data • Data has already been collected – Large surveys – Commercial databases – Qualidata, UK Data Archive, Economic and Social Data Service (www.qualidata.ac.uk) – http://www.esds.ac.uk/search/allSearch.asp? ct=xmlAll&q1=&Submit1=GO&zoom_cat=- 1&zoom_and=1 – http://www.soton.ac.uk/library/catalogues/index.shtmlSee Saunders et al (2009) Chapter 8, esp. pp.267-268.
- 33. Slide 35 MANG6129 Other secondary sources • Personal documents, letters, e-mails • Historical diaries • Autobiographies • In-house publications • Legal records • Minutes of meetings • Blogs / Social networking / Twitter... ???
- 34. Slide 36 MANG6129 Secondary qualitative data • Advantages – Fewer resource requirements – Allows for comparison over time & geographical locations – Less effort/cost than primary data
- 35. Slide 37 MANG6129 Secondary qualitative data • Disadvantages – Purpose of original collection may not match research objective – context specific – Access to this data may be restricted – Type of data may not match research purpose exactly – Quality of data (check for authenticity and credibility)
- 36. Slide 38 MANG6129 Other considerations • • Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies mono method (single data collection and analysis procedure) multiple methods (more than one data collection and analysis procedure) Vs. Saunders et al (2009, pp.151-156)
- 37. Slide 39 MANG6129 Remember! Any one data collection methods not inherently better than any other method.