The document summarizes the construction process being experienced and documented at two construction sites. It provides an overview of the preliminary works including site preparation, earthworks and temporary facilities. It then describes the various foundation works including shallow foundations like pad foundations and pile foundations. The superstructure works of beams, columns, slabs, walls and staircases are also outlined. Finishing works of doors, windows and roof are mentioned. Various construction materials, processes, equipment and safety measures are documented throughout the construction stages.

1. BLD 60303 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1
LIM SIEW NI 0326733
LU CHIAO ER 0326947
TEOH ZHE KHAI 0322905
LIAW YAU VERN 0326627
DIXON KEE TET LUN 0323944
CLARE TSISIKA AYISI 0325787
THERESA THIA AI MIN 0323170
NURUL SHAHIRA BINTI 0326500
MUHAMMAD ALI KUAN
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN
MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA (MASSA) RESEARCH UNIT
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) IN ARCHITECTURE
ASSIGNMENT 1: EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION
EXPERIENCING, DOCUMENTING AND ANALYSING THE CONSTRUCTION
PROCESS

2. CONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE 01
2.0 SITE AND SAFETY 03 ( Dixon Kee)
2.1 PLANTS & MACHINERY 06
3.0 PRELIMINARIES 07 ( Theresa Thia)
3.1 GROUNDWORK 08
3.2 EARTHWORK 08
3.3 SETTING OUT 08
3.4 EXTERNAL WORK 09
3.4.1 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 09
3.4.2 TEMPORARY FACILITIES 10
4.0 FOUNDATION 11 (
Yau Vern )
4.1 PAD FOUNDATION 13
4.1 PILE FOUNDATION 14
4.1 PILE CAPS 15
4.1 GROUND BEAM 16
4.2 WOOD FOUNDATION 17
5.0 SUPERSTRUCTURE 18
5.1 BEAMS AND COLUMNS 19 ( Siew Ni )
5.2 SLAB 26
( Nururl Shahira )
5.3 WALL 29
( Nururl Shahira )
5.4 STAIRCASE 32
( Chiao Er )
6.0 DOORS & WINDOWS 38 ( Zhe Khai )
6.1 DOORS 39
6.2 WINDOWS 41
7.0 ROOF 44

3. YAUVERN1.0INTRODUCTIONTOTHESITE
01

4. 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Exploring an enormous and large area in Shah Alam, as for the
latest residential development.The second site is located at Setia Alam
Seksyen U13, 40170 Shah Alam..Offering 68 unit of teres house with 3
storeys, 34 units of RT2A-F type house and another 34 units of RT2A-G.The
construction was initiated on November,9th ,2015 is expecting completion in
2017 ,April 8th.
02
Desa Salak Maju, located at Salak Tinggi, Sepang, is one of the latest
residential development.It offers 28 units of teres house with 2 storeys and a unit of
bungalow with 2 storeys. Each unit consists at least five rooms and 3 bathrooms.
The smallest version comes with minimum 2528 square feet.
FIRST SITE
SECOND SITE

5. DIXONKEE2.0SITEANDSAFETY
03
Construction is a high hazard industry that has a wide range of activities involving alteration,
and/or repair. Construction workers engage in many activities that may expose them to serious
hazards.

6. 2.0 Site and safety
Personal
Protection
Equipment (PPE)
Construction safety acts as a important roles in the construction site, it is to prevent dangerous and harmful situation occurs.
1
4
3
2
5
Safety Helmet: Protect users from
head injuries.
Safety Glasses: Protects user’s eyes
in order to prevent harmful objects
from striking the eyes .
High Visibility Vest: To increase
workers’ visibility especially in low
light and dark conditions
Gloves: Worn to act as an extra grip
while handling machinery and
materials. Also to protect from sharp
or rough edges
Safety Boots: Give protection to toes
1
2
3
4
5
Signboards
Probihition Sign
Mandatory Sign
Warning Sign
Safe Condition Sign
According to Safety Officer, safety briefing will be held every Friday to
remind and clarify the safety regulations of the site.
Safety Briefing First Aid Kit
It is a collection of supplies and equipment
for use in giving first aid, intended for
treatment of minor injuries.
04

7. 2.0 Site and safety
Storage
How it shouldn’t be stored How it should be stored
Construction materials should be stored correctly, make sure material
are protected from the weather. Not on bare ground or uneven surface
Elevated Work Safety
Scaffolding
Allows workers to reach higher work
areas. The scaffolding should be
stable and workers should not climb
across the cross bracers
Safety Net
Safety net is to protect workers from
falling by covering the edge of the
building.
Body Belt
Harness
System
Safety net is to protect workers from
falling by covering the edge of the
building.
Hoarding
Hoarding are constructed
around the perimeter of the
construction site. This is to
prevent outsiders and
tresspassers for preventing
unwanted causes,
05

8. 2.1 Plants and Machinery
Mobile Crane Concrete Mixing
Transport Truck
Backhoe LoaderBulldozer
Dump Truck Concrete/Mortar Mixer Bending Machine Concrete Vibrator
Bulldozer is a powerful
machine for pushing earth or
rocks in construction, It
consists of a heavy, broad steel
blade or plate mounted on the
front of a tractor.
Backhoe Loader is a tractor
like machine with a combination
of a loader-style shovel on the
front and a backhoe on the
back.
Mobile Crane is a cable-
controlled crane with a
telescoping boom mounted on
truck-type carriers or as self-
propelled models.
06
Concrete Mixing Transport
Truck are made for transport
mixing concrete up to the
construction site.
Dump Truck is a truck chassis
with a dump body mounted to
the frame. The bed is raised to
dump out the things that are put
inside the dump body.
Concrete/Mortar Mixer is a
machine to mixed cement,
aggregates and water to create
concrete. This machine is
portable to move around
construction site.
Bending Machine is a machine
that bend the steel bar to make
a square shape
Concrete Vibrator is a
machine that vibrates the
concrete to make it more
compact and to remove air
bubbles

9. 07
Preliminaries are carried out before construction commences to ensure that the site is properly
prepared and suitable for construction.

10. 3.2 EARTHWORK3.1 GROUNDWORK
08
3.3 SETTING OUT
Setting out is the process of transferring the
foundation plan of building from drawing to
ground. The centre line method has been used
on site for this process.
CALCULATING CENTRE LINE
MARKING
Earthwork is the process that alters the land of
site to a suitable condition and level. It
includes all works done on soil.
Groundwork is the first phase that has to be
completed before construction can commence.
It is the preparation of site substructure.
SITE INVESTIGATION
SETTING BOUNDARY POINT
SITE CLEARANCE
SEDIMENT CONTROL
COMPACTION
EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
Excavation is done on areas where the soil is too soft or filled with
organic matter. The soil that is unsuitable for construction is
excavated.
GRADING
Rough grading is carried
out with a bulldozer to
give the site a roughly
levelled topography.
The finish grading is performed
by using a grader that gived the
site a rather smooth and flat
surface, ready for compaction.
The excavated areas are filled with backfill materials that are
suitable for construction. In our site’s case, it is finely grained soil
consisting of inorganic clay which can be easy compacted.
A road roller rolls over the surface of the soil to displace air that
exists between the pores of the soil grains and compress the
distance between soil grains for a firm and stable ground suitable
for construction.
A sediment basin is built on site for loose soil to settle in during the
rain to prevent leakage of muddy water to the river nearby.
An intensive site investigation is carried out to gather information
about the soil condition and topography of the site, as well as the
existing structure and greeneries on site.
The boundary point is set by a land surveyor to prevent
problems that may arise if another owner’s land is disturbed
during the constructed process.
Removal of excess greenery is carried out to empty the site for
construction.
The site’s boundary point is
marked clearly with fences.
The site has a relatively flat topography.
There is dense growth of trees on site
but no existing structure.
Condition of soil of some
areas on site is not suitable
for construction
The centre line of building is calculated by adding up the perimeter
walls and then subtracting half the thickness of the wall off each
corner.
1. The centre line of the longest wall
of outer building is marked on the
ground by stretching a string
between the pegs embedded on
the ground. It serves as the
reference line.
2. Two pegs are driven at the end
of each line, equidistant to the
central peg. The width of
excavation corresponds to their
distance.
3. The pegs should be driven at
a distance of 2m from the edge
of excavation to prevent from
being disturbed.
4. Stretch the strings
between the corresponding
pegs.
5. Mark the edge of
excavation with lime
powder.
6. Excavation can commence.
The centre lines of the room walls
can be marked out using right
anges because they are
perpendicular to the reference
line.
Boundary line of site as
determined by land surveyor
Existing greenery Removal of greenery
with bulldozer
Cleared land now ready
for earthwork
Sediment basin on site
Trapped sediments
Cross section of sediment basin
Flow of sediments
Lumpy soil with
large particles
Remove
unsuitable soil
Backfill with
suitable soil
Achieved contour but still uneven surface
Flat surface after finish grading
Void Tightly packed particles
Before compaction After compaction
Reference line
Width of excavation

11. 3.4.1 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
09
1. A trench is excavated at a depth lower than where the pipe is to be located.
2. Shoring is executed to allow the soil at
the trench sidewall to become compact.
Soil at the bottom of trench
has to be uniform and free
of lumps to reduce stress
concentrations and irregular
pipe deformation.
3. After shoring is removed, dewatering is conducted
to ensure that the trench is completely dry. This is
done installing several well points adjacent to trench
bottom. Pipes connected to bottom of well vacuums
water from soil to header pipe.
4. Bedding consists of
granular rocks and
gravel.
5. The haunch zone is
filled with class I bedding
material which includes
well graded gravel and
sand mixtures. The pipe
is half buried here.
6. Primary backfill is
filled with clean,
coarse grained soil.
7. The final backfill
has little effect on
the pipe but it still
has to be filled with
suitable soil to
avoid future
settlement.
8. Manhole covers are installed accordingly at regular intervals.
Although it is known that these two systems carry water, they have a huge difference in the sense of what type of water they carry, which is why before
construction begins, these two systems have to be installed properly and separately to make it more convenient to connect to the buildings when they are
constructed.
SEWER SYSTEM
This system carries waste water from
the building and sends them for
treatment before releasing to rivers and
oceans.
STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM
This system collects excess rain and
groundwater from the surface as well
as the roof of the buildings and
carries them to a reservoir.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
MAIN COMPONENTS
HIGH DENSITY POLYETHENE PIPE STEEL PLATE MANHOLE COVER
GULLY TRAP
CAST IRON SEWER
Used for main stormwater pipe, it has a
large strength to density ratio which
helps it withstand high pressure while
being lightweight.
This pipe can withstand high internal
pressure and external load, which is
why it is used as the main sewer pipe.
This manhole is used to cover the stormwater
drainage on the road. Openings are minimal.
It recieves wastewater
from the building
before being emptied
into the sewer
Section A-A’ of
Trench
This manhole is used to
cover the lawn drainage.
It has many openings to
allow excess water from
gardening activities to
enter the system.
STEEL BAR MANHOLE COVER
Header pipes
Seal of gulley prevents
backflow of sewerage
Sewerage flow
LEGEND
Floor Trap
Downpipe
Gully
Steel Plate Manhole
Steel Bar Manhole
Stormwater Pipe
Sanitary Pipe
Drainage and sewerage system of site
Drainage and sewerage system of corner
lot

12. 3.4.2 TEMPORARY FACILITIES
TEMPORARY STRUCTURES TEMPORARY UTILITIES
Location of temporary structures
Temporary facilities are important parts of construction because they each have a specific function that enables the construction process to run smoothly. These
facilities will be removed or disabled once their function is no longer needed.
WATER
ELECTRICITY
STORAGE
OTHERS
10
These structures provide a safe space to carry out a specific activity.
Some equipments are
stored in an open area for
easy handling and access
due to frequent usage. They
include scaffolding and
bricks.
OPEN STORAGE CLOSED STORAGE
The more valuable and
dangerous materials are
kept inside large storage
containers. They include
steel, iron, pipes and
diesel.
TOILET
OFFICE
CANTEEN
WORK SHED
RESIDENCE
WORK SHED
For people
on site to
settle their
calling of
nature.
This is where
meetings and
discussions
take place.
Resting area
for the
workers during
lunch time.
Carpentry
works take
place here.
The workers
sleep here for
convenience.
This is where
iron bending
takes place.
TEMPORARY ACCESS
LOADING PARKING
These services are necessary for most activities to carry out during the
construction process.
Electricity is essential to run the equipments and machineries during construction.
There are 3 main generators on site. These generators run on
diesel and generate electricity for the main machineries.
There are several
small generators
on site which are
used for welding
and providing light.
One of the small generators
that provide light
Main generatorLocation of main generators
Location of water tank Water tank
The construction site needs temporary water supply for sanitary purposes as well as
for mixing cement.
CIRCULATION
The site needs to be easily accessible by contractor vehicles and workers.
Parking is located near the
entrance of the site. It is
large to provide ample
space for the large vehicles
used by constructors.
A large space is provided
for unloading and is
located at a place where
it does not obstruct the
normal flow of circulation.
The temporary vehicular
circulation is similar to the
intended post development
circulation.
LEGEND
Open Storage Closed Storage
Others
LEGEND
Water Tank
LEGEND
Generator

13. Ability to overlap superstructure dependent on plan area in the main and scope of
basements
LIAWYAUVERN4.0FOUNDATIONS
11

14. The foundation is the part of a building that supports the load of the superstructure .As generally understood ,the
term includes all walls ,piers , columns ,pilasters ,and other supports below the first floor.
Two Broad Categories of Foundation :
1. Shallow Foundation
2. Deep Foundation
4.1 Foundation
Shallow foundations are also called spread footings,made by first excavating all the
earth till the bottom of the footing, and then constructing the footing. During the
early stages of work, the entire footing is visible in sight.each footing takes the
concentrated load of the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the
actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
Strip Footing
Plain Concrete strip foundation
● Long continuous strips ,usually of concrete
,created in the ground at a suitable depth to
provide adequate support for the loads
brought upon them.
● The loading on this type on this foundation is
linear pattern which it arise from load bearing
construction involving brick ,block , masonry
or other material in low rise housing or utility
buildings .
*DPC ( Damp Proof Course)
Standard Method of Measurement requires a
minimum width of trench of 0.75m to ensure
sufficient working space for bricklayer.
Deep foundations are required when soil and superficial ground
content is not stable or thick enough to support heavy loads.It also
achieved by forcing vertical structure components several feet
below the ground’s surface.
Conditions lead to the need of consideration in deeper founding
depths which include : Potential volume change in shrinkable clays ,
Variability of the soil across the site & Surface soils with poor
bearing capacity
*Solution for depths to 4500mm Plain Concrete ‘ Trench Fill
strip foundation‘
--++
Methods (bring the foundation structure up to ground formation level
Due to the deep of
founding level,concrete
is filled up to a level
that allows the safe
and economic laying to
the wall up to the DPC
1. Excavate over site to
reduce level
2. Excavate trench to
required depth
3. Concrete to trench
4. Remove excavated
material off site
12

15. 4.1 Pad Foundation
-to support high loads over a limited
area .Such foundations are common
where a structural form brings loads to
the ground by way of columns
-have rectilinear shape in plan & can be
of some depth where a lot of poor soil
overlays (eg.stable rock)
Reinforced Concrete Construction
- to spread the column loads to the
much larger area of the pad
-to save concrete ,method by
tapering the base up to the cross-
section of the column
Better to give away concrete as shaded
area [easier & quicker to do ]
[easier to support column kicker former
,especially if external formwork is needed]
1. Clear the site then pegging the site with correct position of foundation
2. Excavation commences from the reduce level ,down till the desired level
3. Lay a layer of lean concrete to prepare clean and firm base for footing
4. Construct the formwork to the side of pad footing & supported by other wood to
prevent formwork collapse when concrete is being pour inside . Spacer blocks are
placed before reinforcements been laid (provide sufficient concrete cover for
rebars
1 2 3
4
5
6
7
5. Rebars were bent and tied before the
whole thing been lowered & placed inside the
formwork.
6. Stump reinforcements are then erected
.Length of rebars should be extended beyond stump
level & act as starter bars for column above with
addition ties
7. Concrete will set & curing shall be
performed to avoid excessive lost of water during
Method of Construction of Pad Footing
13

16. 4.1 Pile Foundation
Provision of structural columns below ground level to transfer the structural loads down to a
strata capable of accepting them.
3 main groups :
Large displacement piles
-includes all type of solid pile ,including timber & precast
concrete and steel closed at the lower end by a shoe or
plug , which may either be left in place or extruded to
form an enlarged foot
Small displacement piles
-Rolled steel sections ,such as H-piles, open ended
tubes and hollow sections if the ground enters freely
during driving
-it should be recognized that open-ended tubes and
hollow sections frequently plug & become displacement
piles particularly in cohesive soils.
Replacement piles
-formed by boring or other methods of excavation ; the
borehole may be lined with a casing or tube that is
either left in place or extracted as the hole is filled.
Pile Installation
Piles are driven using crawler-mounted rigs ,normally with
conventional rope-operated drop hammers. Diesel or hydraulic
drop hammers can also be used. Most Hardrive piling rigs
operated by Westpile are capable of installing piles at a rake of
up to 1:3 away from the machine and 1:3½ towards the machine.
1 2 3 4
Typical Hardrive installation sequence:
1. Delivery 2. Driving 3.Jointing
4.Complete
*Hardrive is a registered trade mark of Westpile Ltd.
Cutting Down to Level
With the exception of continuous flight auger piles , all piles have to be finished
to a level above that specified for cut-off (the final level above which the pile
cap will be cast.)
Reasons :
● To ensure that the point cut off
will be in solid material . in
displacement piles below any
area damaged by driving or any
concrete at the top of piles that
has not been fully compacted
● To allow for the projecting
reinforcement ,after cutting
down, to have the desired bond
length within the pile cap
Piling specifications usually give the
minimum finishing level of the pile as
well as the cut off level .
Finished conccrete
level
Driving damage
Outline of pile
cap
Reinforcement
exposed for
integration into
pile cap steel
14

17. 4.1 Pile Caps The building’s structural loads are transferred to a piled foundation by means of a pile
cap . To provide stability , groups of piles providing the foundation for one structural
column usually have a linking pile cap .The cap shape is determined by the number of
piles to be linked.
Pile Cap
Blinding
Steel from
cut off piles
Simple pile caps , linking two or more piles in a group
Planning Considerations
Generally the case that pile cap construction will be the responsibility of the
main contractor ,whether by direct action or sub-letting the work .
The main contractor will need to made adequate allowance for the
construction of pile caps at the tender stage.
To do so in a proper manner ,the construction planners will need to have built
up adequate information to establish the cost for work outside the piling
specialist’s brief. The main items will be:
1. Pile finishing level and amount of cut-off
2. Shape and depth of pile caps ,hence excavation required ,disposal of
surplus
3. Assessment of temporary works , formwork requirements,
reinforcement needs ,provision for hanging bolt templates
4. Reinforcement - prefabricate or fix in place
5. Access for handling reinforcement
6. Method of supply and placement of concrete
Ply and timber side forms
Brace
Pile cap
steel not
shown
Starter bars from cut
off barsBlinding concrete
Peg support
Traditional method for forming
pile caps and ground beams
15

18. 4.1 Ground Beam With additional stability , individual pile groups and their caps may be interconnected
by means of ‘ground beams’.
A ground beam is a reinforced concrete beam for supporting walls, joists, at or near
ground level, itself either resting directly upon the ground or supported at both ends
by piers.
Plan of pile caps and
ground beams
Section A-A
Ground beams linking pile caps for
improved stability and to carry suspended
ground slabs
Planning Considerations:
Reasons [both pile caps and ground beams arise it will be necessary to
consider the two items as an entity]
● Shape,length & depth of ground beam and excavation necessary
● Requirements for temporary works - method for formworks
● Striking of formwork and backfilling and compaction before
commencing floor slab works
● Reinforcement - blinding needs , fix in place or prefabricate
reinforcement
● Concrete supply and method of placing (eg method to reduce cost
by handling speed construction - pump the concrete to allow the
crane to concentrate on other items of workload )
● Requirements of services entries to pass through or under ground
beams? Position and size of holes or pipes ?
Pile cap
formwork
supported
Formwork
as
opposite
Formwork
details this
side not
shown for
clarity of
whole
Ground beam forms
carried on pile cap form
Bracing as pile caps or by
reversed beam clamps
BlindingGround beam form as
opposite Traditional method
16

19. 4.2 Wood Foundation
-composed of wood & plywood soaked with preservatives
-primarily developed so that a foundation could be installed in cold
weather ,when concrete cannot .
-faster construction than masonry foundation
-used where working with concrete is limited by short building
seasons
-wood foundations can be erected during freezing weather ,or
where there is too short period of time to construct a different type
of foundation.
Pressure-treated Wood
17

20. 5.1 Beams and Columns 5.2 Walls 5.3 Slabs 5.4 Staircase
LIM
5.0SUPERSTRUCTURE
Superstructure is the part that above foundation or basement.
It provides the necessary utility of the building with structural safety and ventilation
18

21. LIMSIEWNI5.1BEAMSANDCOLUMNS
Beams and columns work together to form a comprehensive supporting system to provide
strength to the building during early stage of construction. Both serve the same function in
supporting the building structure.
19

22. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
Beam
- Steel reinforce bar are introduced into the concrete.It was subjected to bend
moments and shear.
- In the reinforced concrete, the rebar resist tensile forces and shear while concrete
resists compression force
-Reinforce concrete beam are used due to their high compressive strength in general,
and also high resistance to fire and water.
Reinforce Concrete Beam
- Horizontal structure that carries the transverse load
- Beam carries the roof slab or the floor slab
- Characterised by the profile (shape of cross- section), the
length and the materials.
Types of Beam
Fixed Beam Cantilever BeamContinuous Beam Overhanging BeamSimply Supported Beam
Concrete beam can resist
about 1/10 of its
compression force in
tension.
Cross section of
beam
20
228
375

23. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
- Also known as reinforcing bar
- It is a common steel bar which is commonly used in reinforced
concrete and reinforced masonry structure
- Steel bar is used since the coefficient of expansion of steel and
concrete are almost the same - expand and contract at equal rate
- Rebar’s surface often pattern to form a better bond with the concrete.
-There are links called stirrups are formed from small section
reinforcing bars that are cut and bent to contain the reinforcement in
position.
Mild Steel Reinforcement
- Used for tensile stress of
reinforced concrete beam in
reinforced concrete work.
- These steel bars are plain in
surface and are round section
-Can be cut and bent easily
Deformed bars
- Rods of steels provided with lugs,
ribs or deformation on the surface
of bar.
- It minimized slippage in concrete
and increases the surface area and
the bond between the two materials.
Types of RebarRebar
Stirrup with open top for ease of
fixing reinforcement
Closure piece
Stirrup for beams
Top reinforcement
Main reinforcement
Rolled ribbed bar
Twisted ribbed bar
Twisted square bar
Stirrups to form reinforcement cage of beams
21

24. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
Concrete Beam (On Site)
Concrete columns (On Site)
.
FormworkCross section of beam and column
First floor slab
First floor beam
Main bar column
Ground floor beam
Ground slab
Yokes
Side plank
Stringer
Headtree
22

25. Installation of beam (For reference)
Step 1: Installation of reinforcement bars
-The reinforcement bar will be set on the determined spot as
the initial stage for strengthening the beam.
- This is also known as cast-in-situ
Step 2: Installation of formwork
-After rebar is set, the formwork is constructed on top of it and
scaffolding is set up to help support the formwork and
concrete
Step 3 : Filling Concrete
- Concrete is ready to be poured into the formwork and left to set.
- After 14 days of setting, the formwork is removed to reveal the
beam
5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
23
Steel Reinforcement
Concrete Filling
Wooden Formwork
*** Upper Floor Beam
For the upper floor beam, the slab and beam are usually cast-in-situ at the same
time. As the column is completed, the formwork will be built up upon the column
and then the concrete is poured into it. The same process is applied to the
construction methods of the ground beam.
Ground floor beam founded on site

26. 5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
Column
- Vertical structure and designed to support the loads of roofs, floors,
and walls
- Transmit the load from the beam and also its own weight to the
foundation
- Subjected to a pure compressive load
- Columns are mainly constructed by concrete
Reinforced Concrete Column
- Most common column that can be seen on
the construction today.
- Structural member designed to carry the
compressive loads, composed of concrete
embedded with steel bar to provide
reinforcement
Column Construction Tolerance
- Guideline for constructor to ensure the built structures are within the specific range.
- A standard range of tolerance is set to prevent out of proportion buildings due to
workmanship, materials and environment factors.
- Standard tolerance for Malaysia’s construction industry is 14mm.
Shaft
Drawing Site
100mm 113mm
COLUMN
COLUMN
Columns on
the site are
differs from
the drawings
by 13mm,
therefore, it
is ‘tolerated’
24
Cross section of
column

27. Installation of column (On Site)
Step 1: Column layout work
- Laying rope according to the
grids shown in the drawings then
mark the location of the columns
-Providing column sections or
column forms bounding spaces
for the columns
Step 2: Installation of reinforcement bars
- Reinforcement bar is being placed as
shown in the structural drawings
Step 3 : Installation of formwork
- Wooden planks are being placed
around the reinforcement bars as
formwork.
Step 4 : Filling concrete into the formwork
- Concrete is ready to be poured into the
formwork and left to set.
-When it is done, the formwork will be
removed
5.1 BEAM AND COLUMN
25
Completed column founded on site

28. NURULSHAHIRA5.2SLAB
A flat piece of concrete, put on the walls or columns of a structure. It serves as a walking
surface but may also serve as a load bearing member.
26

29. Concrete: different
houses use different
type of concrete.
During the making of
the slab, floor and any
parts of the house that
involves concrete,
slump test has been
applied. This test is to
make sure that the
mixture of concrete is
at the right ratio.
27
concrete from the plant
was brought to the site
Concrete was filled in the
mold (3X until full)
Poked with a stick (24X)
Mold was taken out and
the slump test result
was obsereved. (75mm
+-25mm)
SLUMPTEST
Timber frame
Concrete pouring
BRC and spacer bar
PROCESS IN GENERAL
1. Timber frame was used to maintain the shape of the slab.
2. The concrete that was brought to site from the plant or do on site with concrete mixture was poured into the
frame
3. Compact machine was used
4. BRC was placed to prevent surface cracks when the concrete expand or retract
5. Spacer bar was put under the BRC to keep the space between the reinforcement.
6. Concrete was poured again and finally the finishing will be done after the construction of the whole building is
done to prevent damages on the finishing
7. Compact machine is being used again.
COMPACT MACHINE:
to remove air bumper on the
concrete floor/slab
Compact machine is always used right after the concrete pouring process
while the concrete is still wet and the particles are still can be easily moved.
The usage speed of this machine cannot be too fast since it can cause the
stones to sink to the bottom. The air bubbles must be eliminated because it will
cause the concrete to be weaken once it hardened.this is because the
concrete floor/ slab cannot withstand all the pressure if its hollow.
5.2 SLAB
A horizontal concrete bar that is common structure in modern
buildings construction.this thick concrete slab is construct
directly on soil which is supported by foundation.

30. DUCTING : WHITE TUBES
Floor trap
WC
5.2 SLAB
STARTER
BAR:
for staircase
making
WHAT CAN BE SEEN ON THE SLAB
GROUND
COLUMN
BRC
28
The piping will always be
installed before the slab and
pass through the slab for water
flow purpose. WC is for the
toilet bowl and the floor trap is
for draining out the excessive
water on the bathroom floor.
Ground column is
the ground floor
column that is built
from the foundation
The starter bar is the first step of
making staircase. The bars will later
being bent according to the
measurement of the staircase based
on design.

31. NURULSHAHIRA5.3WALL
29
Walls are continuous bricks or stone structure that encloses or divides an area of land. It also
forms a space within a building and provide protection for a building.

32. BRICK WALL: CLAY BRICK
bricks wall are used for non load
bearing wall. commonly arranged
in running bond depending on
the requirement. These bricks
are installed with flush joint.
Dowel bars those are fixed
to concrete wall/columns
are used to connect bricks
mechanically. The dowel
bar must be in every 4
course brick walls.
Besides dowel, exmet
(expanded metal) are
also being inserted on
the dowel bar to reduce
the stress during the size
change of metals.
Line as a guide or marking (brick line)
Looks like a column but
not. The bricks act as the
outer layer of the piping
system on the wall for the
aesthetic purpose.
brick
concrete
5.3 WALL
30
Flush joint
Marking for plastering (finishing).
}
PLASTERING
Plasterwork is a finishing after
construction is done. This work is a
coating for the brick wall for an
aesthetic purpose. It smoothens the
surface of the wall and give the wall a
nicer look. Plaster is similar to
concrete but it doesnt hv aggregates in
the mixture.

33. CAST-IN SITU SHEAR WALL
smooth concrete wall with plaster finishing for load
bearing wall
31
This cast-in situ shear
wall is cast on site and
installed after the
concrete had dried. This
system is for the usage
Internal wall of this
building.As usual, the process will start with timber frame work, and then steel bars and BRC
and only concrete was poured inside the frame. This wall is being cast vertically. After
the making process it will be left to dry.
Polystyrene
Concrete
1. Timber frame work
is being set up in
the site according
to the size required.
2. Concrete
that was
brought from a
batching plant
by concrete
mixer truck
3. The dried
concrete shear wall
is placed outdoor
Concrete
Empty surface
Image from the site of
the cast in situ wall that
had been installed
The polystyrene foam is
put there during casting
process. This foam will
be removed after
installation for windows
framing or switches on
the wall. The purpose of
them putting the foam
there is because a part of
shear wall when it is
already dried cannot be
taken out easily and may
cause damage on the
wall.
This image shows how the floor
plan of a building using this
system in their construction. As
shown in the diagram, this floor
system is actually helping in
maximise the space of a
building.

34. LUCHIAOER5.4STAIRCASE
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and roof
of the building. It consists of a flight of steps and one or more intermediate landing slabs
between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be made by arranging stairs and
landing slabs
32

35. STAIRCASE REQUIREMENT
STAIRCASE SPECIFICATION
Tread : The part of the step that stepped on
Riser : The vertical portion of the step between steps
Nosing : An edge part of the tread that extends from the riser beneath
Stringer : The structural member that supports the treads.
Typically 2 stringers, one on either side of the stairs
Handrail : A rail that fixed parallel above the pitch line at the side of stair
Baluster : Vertical members that support the handrail
Run : Total horizontal distance between the first steps until the last
steps
Rise : Total vertical distance between the first steps until the last steps
Newel : A vertical post provide support for handrail and the upper end
of an outer string
Newel Cap : The member placed at the top of the newel
NUMBER OF RISE & TREAD CALCULATION
Number of Riser Calculations:
a. Total rise (Floor to floor) = a
b. Assume a Unit Riser Height = b
c. Approximate No. of Risers = a/b
The number of Risers must be a whole number.
Total Run Calculations
Tread (Run) can range from 225mm to 300mm
Assume 275mm per unit run.
Total Run = (NO.Risers -1) x Unit Run
= (14-1) x 275mm
= (13) x 275
= 3375mm
Hence the staircase well opening will be 3375 mm long
5.4 STAIRCASE
33

36. REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRCASE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
STEP 1: STRUCTURAL WORK
Starter bars, ground and first floor stems are
marked and built
5.4 STAIRCASE
34
STEP 2: FORMWORK
Steel bars are railed, formwork are
constructed according measurement given
STEP 3: CASTING
Concrete are poured from the top and
let it flow to the bottom
STEP 4: REMOVE FORMWORK
Wait for 14 days to dry process and remove
the formwork
STEP 5: INSTALLATION OF HANDRAIL
Position of handrial are marked and installed
STEP 6: INSTALLATION OF TILES
Install the tiles on treads

37. CONSTRUCTION SITE : SETIA ALAM 2 QUARTER LANDING R.C STAIRCASE
FLOOR PLAN SECTION
R.C.CONCRETE
NO. OF STEPS
LANDING
2 quarter landing staircase is staircase that have 2 landings. The landing changes a direction of the flight by 180 degrees and serve a place for rest when
moving. The landing divides the staircase into 2, thereby reducing quality of treads in one flight and making the movement of human more comfortable.
Cement rendering is used for building staircase with material of concrete.
The site’s staircase is reinforced concrete with timber strip. 900mm high of m.s. handrail.
tread= 255mm
riser= 166mm
5.4 STAIRCASE
35

38. SITE’S STAIRCASE
5.4 STAIRCASE
36

39. STAIRCASE MATERIAL USED IN SITE
CONCRETE
ADVANTAGE:
- High compressive strength
- Adequate tensile strength
- Fire and weather resistance
- Durability
- Economy to mold any shape
- Low maintenance cost
- Economy as a construction
material
- Less deflection
- Less skilled labor have to be use
DISADVANTAGE:
- Tensile strength to compressive strength ratio
- Uncertainty of final strength
- Larger column section
- Shrinkage causes crack
Concrete is a materials that commonly used in this country for built a staircase. Concrete is a mixture of sand, water, and aggregates. Before built the
staircase, the concrete must be tested the strength using slump test and the design of staircase must be qualified by the engineers.
5.4 STAIRCASE
37

40. CLARETSISIKAAYISIROOF
TEOHZHEKHAI6.0DOORS&WINDOWS
Doors and windows are openings on a structure that act as a transition between spaces, be it
interior or exterior. These structures affect the circulation, natural lighting, ventilation and
spatial quality of the building.
38

41. 6.1 DOORS
A door is a moving structure used to allow access between spaces, an entrance to or within an enclosed
space, such as a building. Doors are very important in determining the flow of circulation of the structure or
space.
TYPES OF DOORS (ON SITE)
Swing doors
D1- Solid core timber door (Living room)
D2- Plywood flush door (Guest room, master bedroom &
bedrooms)
D3- Plywood flush door with 1 layer of non laminated PVC
(Bathrooms)
D4- Timber Louvres door ( Store rooms)
D5- MS Grille door (Yard)
Sliding doors
SD1- Aluminium sliding glass door (Living room)
SD2- Aluminium sliding glass door (Corner/ End lot)
SD3- Aluminium sliding glass door (Master bedroom)
SD3
D1 SD1
FRONT ELEVATION
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
SD1 SD2 SD3
39

42. 6.1 DOORS
1.Confirm the door location and verify the
dimensions of the opening.
2.Align the door frame against the
setting out lines and secure it
temporarily.
SWING DOOR INSTALLATION
3.After verifying the alignment of the
frame, fasten the frame in position
using metal straps.
4.Grout the gap between the
wall and the door frame.
40
Double rabbet door frame
used at the site.
V-shaped metal strap.

43. 6.1 DOORS
Completed door frame at the
site..
5.Install the door panel. Then, install the lock set and door
handles or any other door hardware.
6.Install the architrave.Ensure
the mitre-joints are flat and
square. Apply bonding agent to
the under-side of the architave.
7.Lastly, ensure a good and even stick by
tapping indirectly on the surface with a
hammer.
Completed flush door at the site.

44. 6.2 WINDOWS
A window is an opening in a wall, door or roof that allows the passage of natural light and ventilation. There are various types of windows that
serve different functions.
CILL
MULLION
STAY
BOTTOM RAIL
AWNING MOULDING TOP RAIL
HEAD
FRICTION HINGE
TRANSOM
WINDOW ELEMENTS
TYPES OF WINDOWS (ON SITE)
CASEMENT WINDOWS
-Consists of operating sashes that are
side-hinged and usually swing outwards.
-Ventilation : 100%
AWNING
-Consists of operating sashes
that swing outward on hinges
attached to the top of their frame.
-Ventilation : 100%
FIXED LOUVRES GLASS WINDOW
-Consists of horizontal glass louvres that is
slanted in a fixed angle in a common frame.
-Ventilation : 100%
SLIDING WINDOW
-Consists of one or more
operating sashes that slide along
horizontal grooves or tracks.
-Ventilation : 50%
LOCKING
HANDLE
41
JAMB

45. 6.2 WINDOWS
42CAST-IN WINDOW SYSTEM
Setting out of window frame in precast wall panel casting mould.
Window frame must be protected throughout the fabrication and
construction process.
1.Clean and wet the wall surface
around the opening. Then, Check
the number, dimensions, and
spacing of galvanized straps.
2.Timber V-shaped wedges are used
to temporarily hold the window frame
in position within the wall opening.
3.The window frame is then checked
for plumb, levelness and
alignment.After confirming the
position of the frame, the galvanised
straps are ram-setted to the wall.
4.Apply sealant along the bottom
edge of the wall. Install the bottom
frame and seal the gap between wall
and bottom frame. Lastly, Fix the
main frame to the wall .
LUG SYSTEM
INSTALLATION OF WINDOW FRAME
WINDOW CONSTRUCTION
Our site uses precast concrete lintel.
They are placed above window openings
as a support beam to withstand the
weight of the bricks above by transferring
it to the walls on either side. This will
prevent the framework of the windows
from bending.

46. SUB-FRAME WINDOW SYSTEM
The sub-frame system comprises a sub-frame which is either cast in or anchored to the
wall. The main frame is then installed onto the sub frame at a much later stage of the
construction. This is the installation method used at our site.
6.2 WINDOWS
1. Position the sub-frame using ride up blocks or
aluminium shin plates. Proper alignment and setting out
of the sub-frame is crucial in ensuring the ease of
operation of the window.
2. After confirming the setting out of the
sub-frame, Fix the sub-frame to the wall.
Sub-frame should be temporarily stiffened
with timber packs near the point of anchoring.
3. Seal the anchor/bolt heads and
joints between external wall and sub-
frame. Prior to fixing the main frame,
the subframe should be checked for
any physical damages.
4. After completion of all the wet trades around the window
opening, the main frame is then fixed onto the sub-frame. Millet
should be used to knock the finishing trim in place.
43

47. CLARETSISIKAAYISI7.0ROOF
Defined as a structure forming the upper covering of a building and in this position is fully
exposed to rain, wind, sun and general atmosphere. The roof functions as the primary
sheltering for the interior spaces of the building.
Nowadays, people adapt their houses in accordance to the climate and weather conditions of
the place. However, aside serving their primary purpose, the roofs used in urban areas have
been transformed into an ornamental artwork that is appealing to the eye.
Roofs are majorly classified into: Pitch roof and Reinforced Concrete roof.
44

48. TYPE OF ROOF (ON SITE)
Gable Roof with steel trusses
The roof on our site was a Gable roof, with
two sides sloping upwards and meets at
the ridge of the roof. The steel trusses are
supported by concrete beams. It is then
fitted on with steel tiles.
Manufacturing of Steel roof Truss
Step One
Galvanized steels are made and cut into specific lengths and sizes.
They are then stacked together ready to be assembled.
Step Two
Individual parts of the trusses are now ready to be assembled and it’s
placed in the jig.
Step Three
Individual parts of the webs of trusses are screwed together.
Step Four
The roof trusses that are ready to be delivered are loaded on the truck
directly from the assembly station and are now ready to be used to
build the roof.
Gable Roof
Hipped Roof
Flat Roof
Gambrel Roof
Mansard Roof
Shed Roof
BASIC ROOF TYPES
7.0 Roof
45

49. RIDGE
CLEAT
PURLIN
PRINCIPAL
RAFTER
GUSSET PLATES
Installation of Truss
This is a first step of installation of any type of roofing. Type of truss used on site is
steel roof truss. A steel roof truss is a plane frame consisting of a series of grid
triangles composed of compression members (rafters and struts) and tension
members (ties).
They opted for steel truss so as to prevent weathering and termite assault, and
besides that, it is lighter than wooden frames.
The Roof beam is
supported by
concrete beams
Roof Beam
Roof Installation
Installation of the Roof on site consists of five main stages:
1. Installation of Truss
2. Laying of Waterproofing
3. Installation of Counter lathing
4. Installation of steel tiles
5. Ceiling installation
7.0 Roof
46

50. Laying of waterproofing
After the installation of truss system, they lay down the
waterproofing, with overlaps. For the additional durability, it is
glued with special tape. This is the stage where they initiate
installation of the insulator (thermal and heat insulation foil) and
Mineral wool.
Functions of the Layers.
Thermal and Heat Insulation Foil
1. Heat reflecting, sound insulation and anti-
vibration
2. Suitable for tropical areas like Malaysia
3. Light, soft, dust free, retardant and easy to install
4. Moisture and thermal protection.
Mineral Wool
1. Thermal Insulation
2. Acoustic Insulation
3. Fire protection
4. Water-resistant and vapor permeable
5. Ecologically safe
Installation of the Layers
Thermal and Heat Insulation Foil
- Insulation is freely supported by itself and lies over the
purlins.
- The insulation sheets are laid with overlaps, and are taped
with reinforcement tapes to join the sheets.
Mineral Wool
- The Mineral wool is then applied onto the Insulation
sheets
- A metal sheet is first laid, then the wool is applied onto it.
The technique is to use the weight of the metal sheet to
secure the wool.
Reinforcement
Foil Tape
7.0 Roof
47

51. Installation of counter lathing
Counter lathing is necessary for the creation of
ventilated space between insulation and
waterproofing layers under the roofing. Aside
that, it helps to secure the steel tiles onto the
roof.
Installation of steel tiles
Installation of the roof tiles starts with the bottom row, and the tiles are installed
looking up from the ground. The tiles are laid from the gable ends, then from the
hips, into the valleys. The panels are lined up with the eaves, and not the gable.
Additional fastening needs to be provided, as the roof pitch decreases. For
example, you can use additional screws. A small distance is left between tiles on
the eaves so as to ensure the necessary air access and ventilation under the
roof.
After the installation process is complete, excess material is trimmed off using
sander. Then the roof is cleaned to remove all the debris and dust from it.
Roof tiles shape
Pan tiles
The steel tiles have an S-shaped profile, allowing adjacent
tiles to interlock. These result in a ridged pattern
resembling a ploughed field.
Characteristics of the Roof Tiles (from Site)
- Interlocking tiles
- Lightweight
- Supplied with a good coloured finish
- Corrosion resistant
7.0 Roof
48

52. Materials
Metal Tiles (steel)
Metal tiles are suitable for use in many climates, since the material adapts well to sudden changes in temperature. This particular
type of roofing material is used to cover new buildings as well as renovate the finished structures. Externally metal tile resembles
traditional natural tile. Galvanized steel sheets are used for its production; they are primed and passivized (coated with a special
protective structure that averts zinc from oxidation) from different sides. A decorative layer of acrylic paint is applied onto one of the
sides; the other one is covered with a protective layer. Metal tiles are produced with a goffered, wavy surface or in the form of small
scale-shaped tiles. They are also light in weight and inexpensive.
ADVANTAGES
- Aesthetic.
- Lighter than clay and concrete
tiles.
- Fire resistant.
- Strong and durable.
- Easy to install, as they are light
in weight.
- Moisture resistant
- Minimal maintenance and costs.
DISADVANTAGES
- Noise. For instance, when it rains.
- Dents
7.0 Roof
49

53. Ceiling Installation
The final work on the roof is the installation of
the ceiling to cover the visible structure of the
roof. This leaves the roof, and the entire building
with an aesthetic look.
Steps of Ceiling installation (from site)
HANGER HANGER
PRIMARY CHANNEL
- A hanger is placed on a point
and secured by mechanical
fastening.
- The primary channel is
attached to the hanger
horizontally and secured by
mechanical fastening.
PRIMARY
CHANNEL
CEILING
FURRINGWIRE
CLIP
PLASTER
BOARD
CEILING FURRING
- Ceiling furring is attached with
Primary channel using grid
system. It is the attached with
a wire clip.
- Plasterboard is attached to the
ceiling furring and secured by
mechanical fastening.
1.
4.3.
2.
METAL TILE
MINERAL WOOL
INSULATION SHEET
ROOF BEAM
PLASTER BOARD
CEILING FURRING
HANGERS
7.0 Roof
50

54. Roof Construction Details (On Site)
Ridge
The ridge of a roof is the horizontal area where two sloped
roof sides meet. The ridge area should be capped to ensure a
watertight roof system as well as aesthetic appeal. The ridge
is also utilized for enhancing attic ventilation. In most
occasions, the roof vent is usually installed on the ridge.
Eaves
An eave is the edge of a roof; usually projects beyond
the side of a building serving both a decorative and
practical function.
Gutter
The main purpose of a rain gutter is to protect
the building’s foundation by channeling water
away from the basement.
RIDGE TILE
ROOFING
RAFTER
RIDGE TREE
MORTAR
UNDERLAY
BATTEN
METAL GUTTER
METAL FASCIA
METAL TILES
GUTTER
STRAP
METAL
RETURN
FASTENER
METAL SHIELD
7.0 Roof
51

55. From this project, we have gain a lot of knowledge about the construction
process of a building. We’re able to analyse many elements from the
construction sites. We’ve deepened our knowledge of the construction
methods, processes of involved for each element, detail, construction
terminologies, application of materials, safety, hazards, and the
machineries used on the site.
Besides, we’re able to learn the things that can’t be learnt from being
confined in the four walls of classroom. These are the things that we can
only be learnt from experience. The construction process is more
complicated than we thought because every single step and procedure
are linked and important to each other. Therefore, it has to be carried out
specificity and caution to ensure the final buildings are safe to the client
and also the whole community.
8.0 Summary
8.0SUMMARY
52

56. Site Safety ( Dixon )
-Worker safety, Retrieve October 18, 2016 from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html
-Backhoe Loader, Retrieve October 18, 2016 from http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/backhoe-loader1.htm
-Machinery , Retrieve October 18, 2016 from http://www.hst.uk.com/news/different-types-plant-machinery/
Preliminaries work ( Theresa )
- General Information for Trench Design,Retrieved October 17, 2016 from http://www.iowasudas.org/manuals/design/Chapter09/9B-1.pdf
- Installation and Construction, Retrieved October 17, 2016 from https://plasticpipe.org/pdf/chapter-6_installation_construction.pdf
-Guide to Earthwork Construction, Retrieved October 17, 2016 from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sar/sar_8.pdf
Foundation ( Yau Vern )
-Bryan, T. (2010). Construction technology: Analysis and choice. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Blackwell.
-Illingworth, J. R. (2000). Construction methods and planning (Second ed.). London: E & FN Spon.
-@. (2013). TYPES OF PAD FOUNDATIONS. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-pad-foundations/7514/
Superstructure
Beams & Columns ( Siew Ni )
-Building Construction Handbook, Fifth Edition | PDF Download. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://zeabooks.com/book/building-
construction-handbook-fifth-edition/
-Love, T. W. (1973). Construction manual: Concrete & formwork. Los Angeles: Craftsman Book of America.
-Powers, J. M. (n.d.). Patent US6920728 - Column and beam construction and method. Retrieved October 18, 2016, from
https://www.google.com/patents/US6920728
-L. (1970). Beam and slab. Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://construction-greatopportunity.blogspot.my/2012/03/beam-and-slab.html
Walls & Slabs ( Nurul Shahira )
@. (2010). RCC SLAB CASTING – WORK PROCEDURE. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/concrete/rcc-slab-casting-work-
procedure/1656/
Concrete slab - Reinforcement. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/toolbox/buildright/content/bcgbc4010a/10_floor_systems/03_concrete_slab_reinforcement/page_001.htm
What is the meaning of the term B.R.C ? (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070324144002AAXHHnO
B. (2015). Pouring concrete slab for a small building. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3-abjVk3A0
Staircase ( Qiao Er )
-Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2010). Building construction handbook (7th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
-Stair Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://schools.ednet.ns.ca/avrsb/133/ritchiek/notes/Text/grade10/stairconstruction.htm
Doors & Windows ( Zhe khai )
-Window installation,Retrieved October 18, 2016,from
https://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/..%5CIquas%5Cgpgs%5CAWindow%5CAWInstallation.pdf
-Door Installation, Retrieved October 18,2016 , from https://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/others/doorinstallation.pdf
Roof ( Clare )
-Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (1999). Construction technology (3rd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
-Steel Tile Co. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://steeltile.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/install-manual.pdf
-All types of roofing and roofing materials, USA - Hantekor. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.hantekor.com/
9.0REFERENCES
53