The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication General Understanding of Culture Attributes and Character of Culture Directions and Goals of Culture

1. Intercultural Communication & ELT
The History of the Study of
Intercultural Communication
General Understanding of Culture
Attributes and Character of Culture
Directions and Goals of Culture

2. The History of the Study of
Intercultural
Communication
Intercultural communication is a form of
communication that aims to share information
across different cultures and social groups.
Why should you study how the field of
intercultural communication got started ?

3. Whom do you think should be regarded as an
expert in intercultural communication?
Someone who has actually lived in a variety of
cultures?
Or someone who has conducted scientific studies
on how cultural groups differ in values and
attitudes?
Or someone who analyzes what popular culture
(movies, television, magazines, and so on) has to
say about a particular group of people?

4. What is the best way to study intercultural
communication behavior?
By observing how people communicate in various
cultures?
By asking people to describe their own
communication patterns?
By distributing questionnaires to various cultural
groups?
Or by analyzing books, videos, movies, and other
cultural performances of various groups?

5. Why should you study how the field of
intercultural communication got started ?
To understand what intercultural
communication is, we need to describe the
origins of the discipline
Whom do you think should be regarded as an expert in
intercultural communication?
What is the best way to study intercultural communication behavior?

6. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
 The roots of the study of intercultural communication:
the post–World War II era - the United States
domination
 Government and business personnel working
overseas: ill equipped to work among people from
different cultures.
 The language training they received: little prepare
them for the complex challenges of working abroad.

7. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
 The Foreign Service Institute: The U.S. government
established the Foreign Service Institute (FSI, 1946).
 FSI hired some prominent anthropologists (e.g.
Edward T. Halland) and linguists (including Ray
Birdwhistell and George Trager) to develop
“predeparture” courses for overseas workers.
 Intercultural training materials: scarce, developing
their own.
 FSI theorists: formed new ways of looking at culture
and communication.
 Born of the field of intercultural communication.

8.  The staff at the FSI: government workers not interested in
theories of culture and communication; rather specific guidelines
for getting along in the countries they were visiting.
 Hall’s initial strategy in developing materials: observing
variations in cultural behavior. At the FSI, people who spoke many
languages and who were from many cultures, so it was a great
place to observe and test his theories about cultural differences.
 For example: observing that Italians tend to stand close to each
other when conversing, or that Greeks use lots of hand gestures
when interacting, or that Chinese use few hand gestures in
conversations.
 Confirming his observations by consulting members of different
cultural groups.
Application of Theory

9.  The scholars at the FSI: various disciplines – linguistics,
anthropology, and psychology.
 Theories pertinent to their specific disciplines.
 Linguistics: helping us understand the importance of
language and its role in intercultural interaction - sheding
light on the relationship between language and reality.
 For example: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (Sapir & Whorf) -
Language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social
reality.
 The use of formal and informal pronouns.
 French and Spanish: both formal and informal forms of the
pronoun you (In French, the formal: vous; the informal: tu; in
Spanish, the formal: usted; the informal: tu).
 English makes no distinction between formal and informal
usage (you).
An Interdisciplinary Focus

10.  Anthropologists: helping us understand the role that culture
plays in our lives and the importance of nonverbal
communication.
 Psychologists: helping us understand notions of stereotyping
and the ways in which prejudice functions in our lives and in
intercultural interaction.
 For example: Psychologists (Brislin, 1999; Landis &
Wasilewski, 1999), reveal how variables like nationality,
ethnicity, personality, and gender influence our
communication.
 This field: Interdiciplinary and pragmatic.
An Interdisciplinary Focus

11. The History of the Study of
Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
 Cultural–Individual Dialectic: cultural: we share
communication patterns with members of the groups
to which we belong.
 For example: Sandra, a fifth-generation Italian
American, tends to be expressive, like other members
of her family. However, some of her communication
patterns—such as the way she gestures when she
talks—are completely idiosyncratic (that is, particular
to her and no one else).
 Communication for all of us is both cultural and
individual.
dialectic (1) A method of logic based on the principle that
an idea generates its opposite, leading to a reconciliation
of the opposites; (2) the complex and paradoxical
relationship between two opposite qualities or entities,
each of which may also be referred to as a dialectic.

12. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
Personal–Contextual Dialectic: During communication
the context of this communication is important. In some
contexts, we enact specific social roles that give meaning
to our messages.
For example: When Tom was teaching at a Belgian
university, he often spoke from the social role of professor.
But this role did not correspond exactly to the same role in
the United States because Belgian students accord their
professors far more respect and distance than do U.S.
students.
 In Belgium, this social role was more important than
his communication with the students. In contrast, his
communication with students in the United States is
more informal.

13. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
 Differences–Similarities Dialectic: Characterizing by both
similarities and differences, in that people are
simultaneously similar to and different from each other.
 For example, Japanese and U.S. Americans communicate
differently, just as do men and women.
 Many similarities in human experiences and ways of
communicating. Emphasizing only differences can lead to
stereotyping and prejudice (e.g., that women are
emotional or that men are rational); emphasizing only
similarities can lead us to ignore the important cultural
variations that exist.
 Trying to emphasize both similarities and differences

14. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
 Static–Dynamic Dialectic: tending to be at once static and
dynamic. Some cultural and communication patterns
remain relatively constant, whereas other aspects of
cultures (or personal traits of individuals) shift over time.
 For example: Anti-immigrant sentiment traditionally has
been a cultural constant in the United States, although the
groups and conditions of discrimination have changed.
The antagonism against Irish and Italian immigrants that
existed at the turn of the 20th century has largely
disappeared.

15. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
 History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic: emphasizing the
need to focus simultaneously on the past and the present
in understanding intercultural communication.
 Need to be aware of contemporary forces and realities
that shape interactions of people from different cultural
groups; need to realize that history has a significant
impact on contemporary events.
A students described how this dialectic was illustrated in a
televised panel discussion on race relations:

16. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic: A students
described how this dialectic was illustrated in a televised
panel discussion on race relations:
“The panelists frequently referred to and talked about the history of
different cultural groups in the United States and the present. They also
touched on racial conflicts of the past and future possible improvement
for certain groups. They were, therefore, communicating in a
history/past–present/future dialectical manner. The discussions of past
and present were critical to the overall goal of understanding current
cultural identity. Without understanding the history of, for example, the
slave trade or the Jim Crow laws, can we truly comprehend the African
American experience in the United States today? The history of each
cultural group plays a major role in the present role of that group.”

17. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
 Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic: People may be
simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged, or
privileged in some contexts and disadvantaged in others.
 For example: Many tourists are in the position of
economic privilege because they can afford to travel, but
in their travels, they also may be disadvantaged if they do
not speak the local language.
 Being simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged
because of gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and
other identities.
 Example: An American man: simultaneously privileged
because he is educated, middle class, and male and
disadvantaged because he experiences subtle and overt
mistreatment based on his race and accent.

18. The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication
Six Dialectics of International Communication
Intercultural communication is both
 cultural and individual,
 personal and contextual,
 characterized by differences and similarities,
 static and dynamic,
 oriented to both the present and the past,
 characterized by both privilege and disadvantage.

19. CULTURE
 General Understanding of Culture
 Attributes and Character of Culture
 Directions and Goals of Culture

20. Read the definitions of ‘culture’ below.
What do you think the writers mean by their descriptions?
Which, if any, of the descriptions do you feel successfully
captures the complete or a partial meaning of ‘culture’?
1. A culture is ‘a text the vocabulary and grammar of which its
members learn’ (Fay 1996).
2. ‘Culture is a verb’ (Street 1991).
3. Culture is ‘an evolving connected activity, not a thing’ (Fay 1996).
4. ‘Believing . . . that man is an animal suspended in webs of
significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs’
(Geertz 1973).
General Understanding of Culture

21. General Understanding of Culture
Standard view:
‘culture’ is ‘that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society’.
Tylor (1871); an English antropologist

22. General Understanding of Culture
1. Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned,
Group-Related Perceptions
 Communication scholars from the social science paradigm influenced by
research in psychology: as a set of learned, group-related perceptions.
 Hofstede (1984): a noted social psychologist: the programming of the mind”
and explains his notion of culture in terms of a computer program:
 “Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and
potential acting which were learned throughout [his or her] lifetime. Much of
[these patterns are] acquired in early childhood, because at that time a
person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating.”
 Hofstede: describing how these patterns are developed through
interactions in the social environment and with various groups of
individuals—first in the family and neighborhood, then at school and in
youth groups, then at college, and so on.
 Culture, a collective experience: shared with people who live in and
experience the same social environments.

23. General Understanding of Culture
1. Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned,
Group-Related Perceptions
 Social scientists: emphasized the role of perception in
cultural patterns.
 Cultural patterns of thought and meaning influence our
perceptual processes, which, in turn, influence our
behavior:
“Culture is defined as a pattern of learned, group-related
perception—including both verbal and nonverbal language
attitudes, values, belief system, disbelief systems, and
behavior.” (Singer, 1987, p. 34)

24. General Understanding of Culture
2. Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual
Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions
 Interpretive scholars: influenced by anthropological studies,
viewing culture as shared and learned
 However, tending to focus on contextual patterns of
communication behavior, rather than on group-related
perceptions.
 Many interpretive scholars borrow anthropologist Geertz’s
(1973) definition of culture:
“Culture denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meaning
embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions
expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men (sic)
communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about
and attitudes toward life.”

25. General Understanding of Culture
3. Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic,
and a Contested Zone
 A more recent approach to culture: emphasizing the
heterogeneity of cultural groups and the often conflictual
nature of cultural boundaries. For example:
 What is the “U.S. American culture”?
 Is there an American culture?
 How many perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs and behaviors
are actually shared among the many diverse people living in
the United States?

26. General Understanding of Culture
3. Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic,
and a Contested Zone
 Critical scholars: suggesting that by emphasizing only the
shared aspects of culture, we gloss over the many interesting
differences among U.S. Americans.
 Emphasizing that cultural boundaries are often contested
(questionable) and not easily agreed upon.
“move beyond hegemonic definition of culture as “shared and
transmitted from generation to generation” that assumes that
we all experience a “common culture” and . . . is passed down
from one generation to the next in a linear and seemingly static
fashion. . . . [T]his is a dangerous myth . . . “

27. General Understanding of Culture
Culture can be viewed as
Learned patterns of group-related perceptions
Contextual symbolic patterns of meaning,
involving emotions
Heterogeneous, dynamic, and a site of debate

28. Attributes and Character of Culture
Attributes: helping us define what characteristics might
make one culture different from another culture.
1. Language: Language is one attribute of culture.
 different languages incorporating different systems
of meaning (such as expressions) that cannot be
translated directly into another language without
losing some of the original essence.

29. Attributes and
Character of Culture
1. Language

30. Attributes and Character of Culture
2. Values
 What one culture deems as valuable might be
inherently contradictory to another culture's
concept of what is valuable.
Example: American culture considers youth to be one
of its most valuable features, while many Asian cultures
show great respect for old age and wisdom.

31. Attributes and Character of Culture
3. Beliefs
 Most cultures: associated with a religion or some
kind of belief system that explains how the world
came to be or the spiritual realm of life.
 Beliefs have been ruled by ethnocentrism: one's
own culture has embraced the only appropriate
way of being or thinking and that all others are
incorrect
Example: Beliefs may incorporate stories, prayers and
methods of worship etc.

32. Attributes and Character of Culture
4. Tradition
 Set of traditions: influencing behavior in everyday
life and determining the ceremonies that occur at
milestones such as birth, marriage and death.
 determining what is appropriate and inappropriate
in a variety of situations.
 Example: who can marry who, how many
individuals someone can marry and whether divorce
is acceptable.
 Cuisine and style of dress are also elements of a

33. Attributes and Character of Culture
Is race one of the attributes of
culture? Why, why noy?

34. Attributes and Character of Culture
Race: Race cannot be an attribute of culture.
 Culture: not inborn or transmitted through genes.
 Children abandoned in the wild or deprived of
human contact: not any concept of values or beliefs.

35. The Directives and Goal of Culture
 Culture Is An Adaptive Mechanism
 The first humans evolved in tropical and subtropical
regions of Africa about 2.5 million years ago.
 Since then, we have successfully occupied all of the
major geographic regions of the world.
 What made it possible for our ancestors to live in
temperate and in the northern hemisphere?
 The invention of efficient hunting skills / fire use /
clothing / warm housing / agriculture / commerce.
 Culture: a highly successful adaptive mechanism for
our species.

36. The Directives and Goal of Culture
 CultureChanges
 All cultural knowledge does not perpetually
accumulate.
 New cultural traits are added, some old ones are lost
because they are no longer useful.
 For example: no need the skills required for survival
in a wilderness. - The ability to drive a car, use a
computer, and understand how to obtain food in a
supermarket or restaurant.

37. The Directives and Goal of Culture
 CultureChanges
 The rate of change and the aspects of culture that
change varies from society to society.
 Example: people in Germany, eager to adopt new
words from other languages while many French
people are resistant to it (because of the threat of
"corrupting" their own language.)

38. The Directives and Goal of Culture
 CultureChanges
 Changing one trait: an impact on other traits
because they are functionally interconnected.
 A resistance to major changes:
 Example: many men in North America and Europe
resisted the increase in economic and political
opportunities for women over the last century
because of the far ranging consequences.
 Change in the nature of marriage, the family, and the
lives of all men.
 Change in the workplace as well as the legal system
and the decisions made by governments.

39. Culture Gives Us a Range of Permissible Behavior Patterns
The Directives and Goal of Culture
Culture Gives Us a Range of Permissible Behavior Patterns
 Cultures allow a range of ways in which men can be men
and women can be women: how we should dress based on
our gender / but it allows us to dress in different ways in
different situations in order to communicate varied
messages and statuses.
 Culture also tells us how different activities should be
conducted: how one should act as a husband, wife, parent,
child, etc.
 Culture presents the range of permissible ways of dressing
and acting as a Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and Hindu.