This document discusses several influential models of communication proposed by theorists over time. It describes Aristotle's view that the receiver determines the objective of a message. It also outlines Laswell's model that communication can be explained by "who says what to whom, in what channel, with what effect." Shannon and Weaver's transmission model introduced elements like a transmitter, receiver, and noise. Schramm's models emphasized common background/culture for correct interpretation and that communication is reciprocal with feedback.
2. Several theorists have
discussed the communication
process, coming up with
various models of
communication, each of which
have important implications.
3. Model
• A model provides a simplified
view of something to be
studied.
4. Aristotle
• In 300 B.C., Aristotle said: “For
of the three elements in speech-making,
(speaker, subject and
person addressed), it is the last
one, the hearer that determines
the speech’s end and objective.”
6. Laswell’s view (1948)
• One of the most often cited
characterizations of
communication was advanced by a
political scientist, Harold
Lasswell.
• He said that the communication
process could be best explained
by the simple statement:
“Who says what to whom, in
what channel, with what effect.”
7. • It has been described as the
verbal version of Shannon and
Weaver’s transmission model.
• The point of Laswell’s
comment is that there must
be an “effect” if
communication is to take
place.
8.
9. • Laswell’s view of communication, as
had Aristotle’s two thousand years
earlier, focused primarily on verbal
messages.
• It also emphasized the elements of
“speaker”, “message”, and “audience”.
• He views communication as a one way
process in which one individual
influences others through messages.
10. • Laswell was all for persuasion.
His work suggests that there
could be a variety of outcomes or
effects of communication, such
as to inform, to entertain, to
aggravate, and to persuade.
• His approach provides a more
generalized view of the goal or
effect of communication than did
the Aristotelian perspective.
11. Shannon and Weaver’s
model (1949)
• Shannon’s publication of some
work done for Bell Telephone
formed the basis for the
Shannon Weaver Model.
• This model is focused on
information theory, and in
particular the transmission and
reception of messages.
12. • The model introduces three
elements not found in Aristotle’s
model: a transmitter, a receiver,
and sources of noise.
• In telecommunications the
transmitter and receiver would be
the hardware used by the sender
and receiver during the act of
communication.
13. • The information source selects a
desired message out of a set of
possible messages. The selected
message may consist of written
of spoken words, pictures, music,
etc.
14. Noise may come from static
sources (like solar flares),
unusual weather conditions, or
electron equipment that
interferes with the signal.
15. • Although at first glance, this model
seems to be geared strictly for
telecommunications such as radio and
television, some of the elements may
easily apply to any face-to-face
situation, there may be environmental
or other sources of noise that
interfere with the communication.
• It is the best known example of the
“informational” approach to
communication.
16. • Communication here is used in a
very broad sense to include all
the procedures by which one
mind may affect another.
17. • This involves not only written and
oral speech, but also music, the
pictorial arts, the theatre, and in
fact all human behaviour.
Shannon and Weaver attempted to
do two things:
• Reduce the communication
process to a set of mathematical
formulas
• Discuss problems that could be
handled with the model.
18. • Shannon and Weaver were not
particularly interested in the
sociological or psychological
aspects of communication.
Instead, they wanted to devise a
communications system with as
close to 100 percent efficiency
as possible.
20. • Their model is essentially a
linear, left-to-right, one way
model of communication.
• It lead to technical improvement
in message transmission.
• Shannon’s diagram emphasizes
the encoding of information to
be transmitted and the decoding
of received information.
• It also indicates the effects of
noise on the channel through
• which the information
transmitted.
21. Strengths
• The model’s value is to the
theory of writing as it
emphasizes encoding/decoding
and the effects of noise
• Its simplicity
• Its generality
• Its quantifiability
22. Weaknesses
• In written communication it overlooks
the motives of both the sender
(writer) and the receiver (reader).
People have reasons for writing and
reading.
• It is a gross oversimplification of the
nature of human communication which
is dangerously misleading.
• The model fixes and separates the
roles of “sender” and “receiver”, yet
communication between two people
involves simultaneous “sending” and
“receiving”.
23. Weaknesses
• It is an instrumental model which
treats communication as
intended. Not all communication
is intentional, e.g. body language.
• It does not take into account the
context (social, political,
• cultural, historical) in which
• communication occurs.
24. Weaknesses
• In the model the source is seen as the active
decision maker who determines the meaning of
the message, the destination is the passive
target, i.e. the receiver has a secondary role.
• There was no provision in the original model for
feedback.
• A feedback loop was added later by theorists but
the model remains linear. This became known as
the interactive model.
26. Schramm’s models (1954)
• In 1954, Schramm provided several
models.
First model
• The first was an elaboration of
Shannon’s.
• Schramm saw communication as a
purposeful effort to establish a
commonness between a source and a
• receiver.
28. Second model
• Schramm’s second model is
perhaps more significant.
• Taking the sociological aspects
involved in communication into
consideration, he suggests that
without a common background and
culture, there is little chance for a
• message to be interpreted
• correctly.
29. Activity
• Give examples of
messages/signs which mean
different things in different
cultures.
30. • In his second model, Schramm
introduced the concept of a field of
experience, which he thought to be
essential in determining whether or
not the message would be received
at its destination in the manner
intended by the source.
• He argued that without common
fields of experience – a common
language, background or culture, etc.
– there was little chance of a
• message being interpreted
• correctly.
31. • The extent to which the signal is
correctly decoded (that is,
decoded so that it is the same as
the original message prior to
decoding) depends on the extent of
the overlap of the two fields of
experience.
To overcome the problem of noise he
suggested the importance
of feedback.
32.
33. Strengths
• Provided the additional notion of
a “field of experience” or the
psychological frame of reference
• Included feedback –
communication is reciprocal, two-way,
even though feedback may be
delayed.
34. • Included context – a message
may have different meanings
associated with it, depending on
the specific context or setting
• Included culture - a message may
have different meanings
associated with it, depending on
the culture or society.
Communication systems thus
operate within the confines of
cultural rules and expectations
to which we have all been
educated.
35. Weaknesses
• Although less linear than
Shannon and Weaver’s model, it
accounts only for bilateral
communication between two
parties.
• The complex, multiple levels of
communication between several
sources is beyond this model.
36. Third model (Circular)
• In this model Schramm suggests that
an experienced communicator is
attentive to feedback and constantly
modifies his message in light of what
he observes in or hears from his
audience.
• So the roles of sender and recipient
are taken on by both parties, and
communication becomes circular.
• This creates a relational model of
• communication and the beginning
• of a convergence.
38. • The Schramm view of communication
was more elaborate than many others
developed during the period and
added new elements to describing
the process.
• In addition to re-emphasizing the
elements of source, message and
destination, it suggests the
importance of the coding and
decoding process and the role of the
field of experience.
• This view has been expressed by
theorists as a transactional model.
40. Assignment
• Research on Berlo’s model
and Kincaid’s Convergence
Model to be able to include
them in your discussion of
models of communication.
41. Summary
• Here is a summary of the important
thoughts illustrated by each theorist:
• Aristotle: The receiver holds the key
to success.
• Laswell: An effect must be achieved if
communication is to take place.
• Shannon and Weaver: Semantic noise
can be a major communication barrier.
• Schramm: Overlapping experiences
• make it easier to communicate.
42. Assignment
Choose any one of the following
questions (25 marks each):
Differentiate between any two
models of communication,
highlighting the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
2. In any communication process
potential barriers exist. Discuss.
Deadline: 30 September 2011
