2. Mycoplasmas are the “smallest, independently
replicating prokaryotes”. These organisms were first
discovered by Pasteur in eighteenth century when
he studied the causative agent of the “Bovine
pleuropneumonia” (A pulmonary disease of cattle
which appeared in Germany and Switzerland in
1713.
Due to its resemblance with pneumonia symptoms
this disease is called as Bovine Pleuropneumonia).
మైకోప్లా స్లాస్ "చిన్నవి, స్వతంతరంగల పున్రుత్పాదక ప్రర కరియోట్స్".
"బో విన్ ప్లారోప్ిన్యుమోనియా" (1713 లో జరానీ మరియు
స్ివట్జరలా ండ్ా లో కనిప్ించిన్ పశువుల వ్లుధి యొకక పుపుస్ వ్లుధి)
అధ్ుయన్ం చేస్ిన్పుాడ్ు ఈ జీవులు పద్దెనియూర్ చేత పద్దెనిమిదవ
శత్పబెంలో మొదట్ కన్యగొన్బడ్పా యి. న్యుమోనియా లక్షణపలత్ో ద్పని
ప్ర లిక కలరణంగల ఈ వ్లుధిని బో విన్ Pleuropneumonia)
3. 2. Habit and Habitat of Mycoplasma:
Mycoplasmas are parasitic as well as saprophytic.
More than 200 mycoplasma like bodies are found to
be associated with sewage, plants, animals, insects,
humus, hot water springs and other high
temperature environment. They have been found in
phloem tissues of diseased plants.
At least eleven serologically and biologically distinct
mycoplasmas have been found in man. M. orale and
M. salivarium are found almost in every healthy
adult. M. hominis is present in a large proportion in
sexually active adults.
Diseases like primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) in
the mouth, pharynx and genito-urinary tract and
tonsillitis in humans are caused by mycoplasma.
4. 2. మైకోప్లా స్లా యొకక హబీట్స మరియు నివ్లస్ం: మైకోప్లా స్లాలు
పరలన్నజీవి మరియు స్లప్రర ఫిట్ిక్ గల ఉంట్ాయి.
200 కి ప్లైగల మైకోప్లా స్లా మృతద్ేహాలు మురుగు, మొకకలు,
జంతువులు, కీట్కలలు, హయుమస్, వ్ేడ్ి నీట్ి బుగగలు మరియు ఇతర
అధిక ఉష్రో గరత వ్లత్పవరణపలత్ో ముడ్ిపడ్ివున్పనయి. వ్లరు వ్లుధి
మొకకల ఫర లోమ్ కణజాలంలో కన్యగొన్పనరు. కనీస్ం పదక ండ్ు
స్లరోలాజికల్ మరియు జీవస్ంబంధ్మైన్ విభిన్న మైకోప్లా స్లాస్యా
మనిషిలో కన్యగొన్బడ్పా యి.
ఎం.ఆరలా మరియు ఎం. స్లలివ్లరియం పరతి ఆరోగువంతమైన్ ప్లదెవ్లరిలో
ద్పద్పపుగల కనిప్ిస్లా యి. ఎం. హో మినిస్ లైంగికంగల చయరుకైన్ ప్లదెలలో
ప్లదె స్ంఖ్ులో ఉన్పనరు. న్ోట్ిలో, ఫలరిన్క్ మరియు జనిట్ో-
మూత్పర వ్లహిక మరియు మాన్వులలో ట్ాని్లిలిట్ిస్ వంట్ి ప్లర థమిక
వ్ైవిధ్ు న్యుమోనియా (PAP) వంట్ి వ్లుధ్యలు మైకోప్లా స్లా వలన్
స్ంభవిస్లా యి.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. 3. General Characters of Mycoplasma:
1. They are unicellular, smallest, non-motile and
prokaryotic organisms forming fried egg shaped
colonies. 2. They are pleomorphic i.e., able to
change their shape depending upon culture media.
3. They may be rod like, ring like, globoid or
filamentous. The filaments are of uniform diameter
(100-300 nm) and vary in length from 3 nm to 150
nm.
4. Some mycoplasma predominantly assume
spherical shape (300-800 nm in diameter). 5. They
are ultra-filterable i.e., they can pass through
bacteria-proof filters.
6. They do not possess rigid cell wall.
7. The cells are delimited by soft tripple layered lipo-
11. 8. Within the cytoplasm ribosomes are found
scattered in the peripheral zone. These are 14 nm in
diameter and resemble with bacteria in
sedimentation characteristic of both the
nucleoprotein and nucleic acid.
9. The ribosomes are 72S type.
10. Within the cytoplasm fine fibrillar DNA is present.
It is double stranded helix.
11. Mycoplasma generally grow more slowly than
bacteria.
12. They require sterol for their nutrition.
13. They are usually resistant to antibiotics like
penicillin, cephaloridine, vencomycin etc. which
action cell wall.
14. They are sensitive to tetracycline.
12. 8. స్లైట్ోప్లా జమ్ రిప్రర మోముా లోపల పరిధీయ జోన్ లో చదలాా చదదయరుగల
కనిప్ిస్లా యి. ఇవి 14 nm వ్లుస్ంలో ఉంట్ాయి మరియు
న్యుకిాయోప్రర ట్ీన్ మరియు న్యుకిాయిక్ ఆమా ం యొకక అవక్షలప
లక్షణంలో బాకీిరియాత్ో స్మాన్ంగల ఉంట్ాయి.
9. Ribosomes 72S రకం.
10 స్లైట్ోప్లా స్ాల్ లోపల జరిమాన్ప ఫిబ్రరలార్ DNA ఉంద్ి. ఇద్ి డ్బుల్
స్లిాయిన్ా హెలిక్్.
11. మైకోప్లా స్లా స్లధపరణంగల బాకీిరియా కంట్ే న్మాద్ిగల
ప్లరుగుతుంద్ి.
12. వ్లరి ప్ర షణ కోస్ం వ్లరు స్లిరోల్ అవస్రం. 13. ఇవి ప్లని్లిన్,
స్లఫలోరిడ్ిన్, వన్ోకమిస్లైస్ిన్ వంట్ి యాంట్ీబయాట్ికు్ు స్లధపరణంగల
నిరోధ్కత కలిగి ఉంట్ాయి, ఇద్ి చరు స్లల్ గోడ్. 14. ఇవి ట్ెట్ార స్లైకిాన్యక
స్యనినతంగల ఉంట్ాయి. 15. పద్ిహేన్య నిమిష్లలోా అవి 40-55 ° C
ఉష్రో గరతత్ో కూడ్ప చంపబడ్త్పరు.
13. 4. Cell Structure of Mycoplasma:
In mycoplasma, the cells are small varying from 300 nm
to 800 nm in diameter. Rigid cell wall is absent.
Cells are surrounded by a triple layered lipo-
proteinaceous unit membrane. It is about 10 nm thick.
Unit membrane encloses the cytoplasm.
Within the cytoplasm RNA (ribosomes) and DNA are
present. The ribosomes are 14 nm in diameter and 72 S
type. DNA is double stranded helix. It can be
distinguished from bacterial DNA by its low guanine and
cytosine content.
The DNA is up to four percent and RNA is about eight
percent and it is less than half that usually occurs in
other protoplasm’s. The guanine and cytosine (G and
C).Contents in DNA range from 23-46 percent. In some
species e.g., M. gallisepticum some polar bodies
14. మైకోప్లా స్లా యొకక స్లల్ నిరలాణం: మైకోప్లా స్లాలో, కణపలు 300 nm
న్యండ్ి వ్లుస్ంలో 800 nm వరకు చిన్నవిగల ఉంట్ాయి. దృఢ స్లల్ స్లల్
గోడ్ లేదయ. కణపలు ఒక ట్ిరపుల్ ప్ర ర లిప్ర ప్రర ట్ీన్స్ిస్ యూనిట్స ప్ర ర
(Fig. 6) చేత చయట్ూి ఉన్పనయి.
ఇద్ి 10 nm మందంగల ఉంట్ ంద్ి. యూనిట్స ప్ర ర స్లైట్ోప్లా జమున
కలుపుతుంద్ి. స్లైట్ోప్లా జం RNA (రిబో స్ర మస్) మరియు DNA లో
ఉన్పనయి. రజిజోములు 14 nm వ్లుస్ంలో మరియు 72 S రకం.
DNA డ్ీల్ ఒంట్రిగల ఉంద్ి. ఇద్ి తకుకవ గలవన్ైన్ మరియు స్లైట్ోస్ిన్
కంట్ెంట్స ద్పవరల బాకీిరియల్ DNA న్యండ్ి వ్ేరు చేయవచయచ.
DNA న్పలుగు శలతం వరకు ఉంట్ ంద్ి మరియు ఆర్ఎన్ఏ ఎనిమిద్ి
శలతం ఉంట్ ంద్ి, స్లధపరణంగల ఇతర ప్రర ట్ోప్లా జమోా స్గం కంట్ే
తకుకవగల ఉంట్ ంద్ి. గలవన్ైన్ మరియు స్లైట్ోస్లైన్ (G మరియు C).
DNA పరిధిలో ఉన్నవి 23-46 శలతం న్యండ్ి. క నిన జాతులలో, ఉద్ప.,
గిలిాస్లప్ిియం క నిన ధ్యర వ శరీరలలు ఒకట్ి లేద్ప మరొకద్పని న్యండ్ి కణపల
న్యంచి బయట్కు వస్లా యి. వీట్ిని బీా బ్ అని ప్ిలుస్లా రు మరియు
ఎంజైమాట్ిక్ స్లైట్ాగ భావిస్లా రు
15. little leaf of brinjal caused by mycoplasma.
Symptoms of Little Leaf Disease:
The main symptom of the disease is the production
of very short leaves by affected plant. The petioles
are so much reduced in size that leaves appear
sticking to the stem. Such leaves are narrow, soft,
smooth and yellowish in colour.
Newly formed leaves are further reduced in size. The
internodes are shortened and at the same time large
number of axillary buds are stimulated to grow into
short branches with small leaves. This gives whole
plant a bushy appearance. Usually such plant
unable to form flowers. Fruiting is very rare.
Causal Organism: Mycoplasma like organism (MLO).
16. మైకోప్లా స్లా వలన్ Brinjal యొకక చిన్న ఆకు. లిట్ిల్ లీఫ్ వ్లుధి
లక్షణపలు:
వ్లుధి యొకక పరధపన్ లక్షణం పరభావిత మొకక ద్పవరల చపలా చిన్న
ఆకుల ఉతాతిా. ప్లట్ియోల్్ చపలా పరిమాణంలో తగిగప్ర త్పయి, ఆకులు
కలండ్ం వరకు అంట్ కుని ఉంట్ాయి.
ఇట్ వంట్ి ఆకులు ఇరుకైన్, మృదయవ్ైన్, మృదయవ్ైన్ మరియు పస్యపు
రంగులో ఉంట్ాయి. క తాగల ఏరాడ్ిన్ ఆకులు మరింత పరిమాణంలో
తగుగ త్పయి. అంతరూూత్పలు చిన్నవిగల ఉంట్ాయి మరియు అద్ే
స్మయంలో చిన్న స్ంఖ్ులో ఉండ్ే చిన్న ఆకులు గల చిన్న
క మాలుగల ప్లరగడ్పనికి ప్రరరలప్ించబడ్త్పయి. ఈ మొతాం మొకక ఒక
బ్రషూ పరదరశన్ ఇస్యా ంద్ి.
స్లధపరణంగల పువువలు ఏరారుచయకున్ే అలాంట్ి మొకక. ఫలాలు
కలస్లా యి చపలా అరుదయ. కలరణవ్లదం జీవి: మైకోప్లా స్లా లాంట్ి జీవి
(MLO)
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25. . Characteristics of Actinomycetes:
The Actinomycetes or Streptomycetes or
Actinomycetales as they are called are a group or
Gram-positive bacteria which form branched
filamentous hyphae having resemblance with
fungal hyphae.
But their hyphal diameter is approximately 1µm,
whereas in fungi it is 5 to 10 µm.
These organisms reproduce by asexual spores
which are termed conidia when they are naked or
sporangiospores when enclosed in a sporangium.
Although these spores are not heat-resistant, they
are resistant to desiccation and aid survival of the
species during periods of drought.
26. These filamentous bacteria are mainly harmless soil
organisms, although a few are pathogenic for humans
(Streptomyces somaliensis causes actinomycetoma
of human), other animals (Actinomyces bovis causes
lumpy-jaw disease of cattle), or plants (Streptomyces
scabies causes common scab in potatoes and sugar
beets).
In soil they are saprophytic and chemoorganotrophic,
and they have the important function of degrading
plant or animal resides.
Again some are best known for their ability to
produce a wide range of antibiotics useful in treating
human diseases. These organisms excrete
extracellular enzymes which are decomposers of
dead organic material.
27. These enzymes lyse bacteria and thereby keep
the bacterial population in check and thus help to
maintain the microbial equilibrium of the soil.
The Actinomycetes superficially resemble fungi
for having subterranean and aerial hyphae and
chains of spores. But their hyphal diameter,
cytology and chemical composition of cell walls
are quite decidedly bacterial in pattern.
28. 2. Historical Review of Actinomycetes:
The early exploratory studies by McCormack
(1935) and Alexopoulos and Herrick (1938-1942)
were followed by the intensive studies by
Professor S. A. Waksman and his students (1943-
1951) which culminated in the discovery of
streptomycin and other new and potentially useful
chemotherapeutic agents.
Nearly 100 antibiotic substances have been
reported in the literature as metabolites of the
Actinomycetes.
A few of these have been isolated in pure form
and their chemistry studied in detail, while others
have been described only as concentrates or in a
29. 3. Distribution and Mode of Nutrition of
Actinomycetes:
The Actinomycetes are essentially mesophilic and
aerobic in their requirements for growth and thus
resemble both bacteiia and fungi.
They along with other microorganisms, form the soil
microflora and produce powerful enzymes by means
of which they are able to decompose organic matter.
The majority of these are soil organisms and are
associated with rotting material. The characteristic
odour of soil after it is ploughed or wetted by rain is
largely due to the presence of the Actinomycetes.
30. Some are pathogens. The Actinomycetes grow slowly and
on artificial media produce hard and chalky colonies which
smell decaying leaves 01 musty earth. They are
particularly abundant in forest soil because of the
abundance of organic matter. They occur mainly in soils of
neutral pH, although some prefer acidic or alkaline soil.
The Actinomycetes can grow in soils having less water
content than that needed for most others bacteria.
The Actinomycetes are capable of utilizing a large number
of carbohydrates as energy sources when the
carbohydrates are present in the media as sole sources of
meta- bolizable carbon.
Most of the Actinomycetes are quire proteolytic and attack
proteins and polypeptides, and are also able to utilize
nitrates and ammonia as sources of nitrogen. Nearly all
synthesize vitamin B12 when grown on media containing
31. 4. Somatic Structures of
Actinomycetes:
Most of the Actinomycetes are mycelioid.
They begin their development as unicellular
organisms but grow into branched
filaments or hyphae which grow profusely
by producing further branches constituting
the mycelium.
The width of the hyphae is usually 1 µm.
The delicate mycelia often grow in all
directions from a central point and produce
an appearance that has been compared
32.
33.
34.
35. Morphology of sporebearing structure
Monoverticillate with
nospira
l
Monoverticillate
with spiral
biverticillate with
no spiral
biverticillate with
spiral
Closed
spiral
Open
spiral
straigh
t
flexou
s
36. Therefore, the Actinomycetes are also called ‘ray
fungi’.
They often produce complicated designs and
resemble some of the drawings in modern art
exhibitions. They are Gram-positive.
The protoplasm of the young hyphae appears to
be undifferentiated, but the older parts of the
mycelium show definite granules, vacuoles and
nuclei.
Many Actinomycetes at first produce a very
delicate, widely branched, mycelium that may
embed itself into the soil, or, if grown in culture,
into the solid medium. This kind of mycelium is
therefore called the ‘substratum or primary
mycelium’.
37.
38.
39. After a period of growth, hyphae of a different kind
develop, which raise themselves up from the
substratum mycelium and grow into the air.
These ate called aerial hyphae, and the corresponding
mycelium is the aerial or secondary mycelium. The
aerial mycelium may be white yellow, violet, red, blue,
green, or grey and many form pigments that are
excreted into the medium.
The aerial mycellium is usually slightly wider than the
substratum mycelium. The aerial hyphae possess an
extra ceil wall layer (sheath).
The hyphal tip undergoes septation within this sheath
to form a chain of conidia. Conidial cell contains a
plump, deeply staining, oval or rod-shaped nuclear
body.
40. 5. Reproduction in Actinomycetes:
Most species reproduce by conidia which are
developed in chains from the aerial hyphae. The
chains may be straight, flexuous (wavy) or coiled to
various degrees.
The conidia bearing filaments are often spirally
twisted. Sometimes the whole length of the aerial
hypha, sometimes only its upper part is transformed
into conidia.
Each conidium has a roundish nucleus and is
surrounded by a firm outer wall. The conidial wall may
be smooth, warty, spiny, or hairy.
The conidia can persist in the dry state for many
years. Even the vegetative forms of the
Actinomycetes are quite hardy and are able to adapt
41. The conidia appear as a fine powdery coat on the
surface of cultures.
When the conidia have been scattered on the ground
and conditions are favourable they germinate
producing one to three or even occasionally four little
germ tubes which give rise to mycelioid condition .
The primary mycelium in some species commonly
breaks up into small fragments called arthrospores,
which often look like bacterial cells and which might
easily be mistaken for the latter.
In this article we will discuss about the features of
actinomycetes with its suitable diagram.
Actinomycetes are called actinobacteria or high G + C
rich Gram-positive filamentous bacteria due to their
mycelium like (slender and branched) structures.
42. These filaments are long and it may fragment into
much smaller units and less broad than that of the
fungal mycelium usually 0.5 to 1.0 µm in diameter but
sometimes reaches to 2.0 µm in few cases.
A chain of sexual spores called conidia are produced
on their hyphae, and few of the actinomycete (genera)
found in soil bear the sporangium containing spores.
The colonies are powdery mass over the surface of
culture media, often these are pigmented when the
aerial spores are produced.
43. Actinomycetes are classified into 7 families. The classification
is based on hyphal and reproductive structures.
Family 1: Streptomycetaceae: Hyphae non-fragmented,
aerial mycelium with chains of spores with 5 to 50 or more
conidia per chain e.g. Streptomyces, Microdlobaspone and
Sporictilhya.
Family 2: Nocardiaceae: Hyphae typically fragmented e.g.
Nocardia, Pseudonocardia.
Family 3: Micromononsporaceae: Hyphae non-fragmented
conidia borne singly or in pairs or in short chains, e.g.
Micromonospora, Thermonospora, Thermoactinomycetes,
Actinobifida.
Family 4: Actinoplanaceae: Sporangia bear the spores. The
hyphal diameter varies from 0.2 to 2.0 µm e.g.
Streptosporangium, Actinoplanes, Plasmobispora and
Dactylosporangium.
Family 5: Dermatophilaceae: Hyphal fragments divide to form
44. Family 6: Frankiaceae: It is strictly associated
with root of non-leguminous plant and form root
nodules e.g. Frankia.
Family 7: Actinomycetaceae: No true
myceluim is produced, usually strictly to
facultative anaerobic e.g. Actinomyces.
Due to the development of modem techniques
of molecular biology such as 16S rRNA
sequencing, phylogeny and relationship,
mycelium has the following criteria.
45. 3. Economic Importance of Actinomycetes:
The Actinomycetes, forming soil micro-flora have
gained the greatest importance in recent years as
producers of therapeutic substances.
Many of the Actinomycetes have the ability to
synthesize metabolites which hinder the growth
of bacteria; these are called antibiotics, and,
although harmful to bacteria are more or less
harmless when introduced into the human or
animal body.
Antibiotics have in modern times great
therapeutical and industrial value.
46. The past decade has seen considerable interest in the
Actinomycetes as producers of antibiotic substances.
The successful use in chemotherapy of streptomycin,
chloromphenicol (Chloromycetin is the trade name of
this substance), aureomycin and terramycin all
metabolites of the Actinomycetes, has stimulated the
search for new Actinomycetes and new antibiotics
among the Actinomycetes.
The genus Streptomyces is the largest and the most
important one, antibiotically speaking.