2. INTRODUCTION
● Nigeria, West-Africa (Gulf of
Guinea)
● One of the largest River
Delta’s worldwide (70.000
km²)
● Most populous area of Africa
● Spread across 9 federal states
● Most important city: Port
Harcourt (1,2 million
inhabitants)
4. Natural environment
● One of the largest concentrations of biodiversity on Earth
● ≠ ecological zones: coastal barrier islands, mangrove swamp forests, freshwater
swamps, lowland rainforests [Mmom & Arokoyu, 2010]
● But nature largely in danger…
→ Main cause: oil industry!
5. Economy and agriculture
● Before the discovery of oil: multiple economies:
production of cacao, palm oil, skins, rubber,
timber, cotton…
● Mangroves → fishing
● 1957: discovery of oil: Nigeria becomes the biggest
crude oil producer of Africa.
1957: discovery of oil: Nigeria becomes the biggest
6. ECONOMY = OIL
● 2,5 million barrels of oil a day
● 85% of Nigeria’s national
revenue
● 90% of the total exports
=> mono-commodity economy
7. ECONOMY = OIL
● Nigeria = 15th largest oil producing country
● Nigeria is an OPEC-member
○ = Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
○ Intergovernmental organisation with 13 members
■ Together 73% of world’s proven oil reserves
○ Target = "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the
stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of
petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those
investing in the petroleum industry." [OPEC, 2017]
8. OIL = POLLUTION
● Massive pollution through gas flaring
○ Niger Delta is one the most oil-polluted areas
in the world
○ More greenhouse gas emissions in Delta than
in rest of Africa together!
● Oil spills cause serious pollution in the Delta
○ Between 9 and 13 million barrels have been
spilled since 1958 (estimate)
9. Floods spread pollution
● Natural floods renew wetland areas and support wide range of fauna and flora in
the Delta
● But increased flooding due to global warming [Musa et al., 2014]
○ 42,6% of the Niger Delta is highly vulnerable to sea level rise
○ Floods are caused by many factors such as: heavy rainfall, unusual high tide, failure of dams…
→ Pollution (such as oil spills) spreads by floodings!
10. Consequences of pollution
● Fishing and agriculture are heavily compromised (impact on local food supply)
○ Crop yield and productivity drops
○ Death of fish in mangroves and rivers
● Unemployment
● Health risks (asthma, chronic bronchitis, leukemia)
● Acid rain
→ Delta becomes uninhabitable!
→ Families immigrate and turn to the cities; RAPID URBANIZATION
12. Demography
→ Fast urbanization
caused by rural-urban
migration, not by
natural increase!
[OYELEYE, 2013]
Due to: Oil pollution,
regional inequalities
and the dense
populated Niger delta
13. Consequences of rapid urbanization
● No preparation or safety net for the rural-urban
migrants in the urban centres
○ Not enough schools, roads, water supply, healthcare,
jobs…
→ How come? Governance:
‘Many of the political leaders especially at the Federal
level do not have professional experience in relation
to the portfolios given to them’. [OYELEYE, 2013]
14. Projections urbanization
● Number of people in Nigerian living
under urban conditions: 100 million by
2020 (from 180 million in total)
→ Carrying capacity of the urban
infrastructure will collapse!
○ Although the urban population growth rate is
now declining (6% in 1986 to currently 4%)
15. THREADS of rapid urbanization
● Housing problem
○ Over 75% of the dwelling in Nigeria are sited in slums.
○ Rent prices rise because of high demand and small offer
● Unemployment, poverty and more crime
● Food Problems: agriculture is left behind
● Enormous pollution, (water, air, noise, diseases,
congestions)
16. CHANCES of rapid urbanization [OYELEYE, 2013]
● Level out the regional inequalities → Invest in countryside!
○ Provision of basic infrastructure, social amenities (schools, roads, health infra, electricity, water,...)
● Stimulate agriculture in countryside
○ Zero-interest loans for farmers
○ Low cost agricultural tools
○ Clean up oil-pollution
● Transition of urban centers:
○ Water-and green infrastructure
○ Address pollution
○ Reinvest in city infrastructure
18. OIL ACTORS
● ExxonMobil (VS), Chevron (VS), Shell (NL), Total (FR) and Eni (IT) are the
main oil companies in Nigeria (TNOC) (all foreign multinationals!)
● Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)
○ State oil corporation established in 1977
○ All operations are in joint partnerships with the major oil companies (TNOC)
● ‘Clean Nigeria Associates’ (CNA)
○ Non-profit organization formed by the Oil Producers Trade Section (OPTS = TNOC?)
○ Mission: “to protect the Nation’s environmental heritage”
○ But CNA is rather symbolic than real...
19. WATER ACTORS (Nigerian water management) [Chukwu, 2015]
● Responsibilities for water resource development are vested on:
○ Government agencies
■ Federal Ministry of Water Resources, State Water Agencies, Local Government Authorities,
National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (2000), National Water Policy (2004)…
○ Non-governmental/donor agencies
■ CBO, NGO, UNDP, UNEP, Water AID, EU, World Bank, UNICEF...
● Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR)
○ Main national coordinating body in the water sector:
“It is charged with the responsibilities of policy advice and formulation, data collection, monitoring and
co-ordination of water resources development (of which water supply is a component) at the National
level.” [Chukwu, 2015]
20. OTHER STATE ACTORS
● Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) (part of Niger Delta Ministry
since 2008) [nddc.gov.ng, 2017]
○ Development of a master plan for development of Niger Delta
○ Providing infrastructure
○ Creation of enabling environment for industrialization and employment
● Also Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), Federal Ministry of
Environment, State Ministries of Environment, National Maritime Authority…
[Adelana et al., 2011]
21. CIVIL ACTORS [Ikelegbe]
1) Ethnic or communal association
2) Ethnic youth association (militant/violent)
3) Pan-ethnic civil society
4) Environmental & civil rights organisations
Strategies:
● Advocacy
● Call for dialogue and negotiation
● Peaceful and violent protests
22. CIVIL ACTORS - Claims [Ikelegbe; Akpabio & Akpan]
Towards TNOC’s:
● Increase level of community development & employment of indigenes
● Social responsibility towards problems and needs of local communities
● Environmental issues
Towards the state:
● Accelerated development of the region and increased quality of life
● Form of direct participation or control of the petroleum resources
● Regional autonomy and self-determination
● End of constant militarisation and state repression in the region
24. And the international consumer?
● An abundance/jungle of state actors → lack of clarity
● The Nigerian elite sticks to the oil companies
→ Is the international consumer aware of the alarming situation?
→ And does he care?
26. Unequal distribution of oil revenues [Akpabio & Akpan; Ikelegbe]
● ‘Rentier’ state, largely dependent on oil mining rents, taxes and royalties paid by
transnational oil companies (TNOC’s)
● State: dominated by coalition of ethnic majority elites whose geographical
homelands have little or no oil reserves => disadvantage of the ethnic minorities
of the Niger Delta
● Niger Delta = poorest and least developed region
=> hostility to the state and TNOC’s
27. Failure of governance - challenges
● State is not a mediator, but major prosecutor of the conflict (primary interests are
the economic well-being of the dominant local elites)
● Coalition between elites of the TNOC’s and elites of the state
● Friction between local communities: who owns the land?
● How to improve relationship between the state, the oil industry and the oil
producing communities?
