philospj\hy

1. Subject Matter of Philosophy:
Philosophy is the study of reality; it is the attempt to understand the whole of our experience; it is the
daughter of religion and the mother of the sciences,
Philosophers discuss such subjects as:
 The existence of God,
 The immortality of the soul,
 The freedom of the will.
Criticsim:
If Philosophers really know anything about the reality of the external world why do they not say
straightforwardly that it is real or unreal, and prove it?
This is an illusion; but it is a very natural one. Let us take the question of the reality of the external
world as an example. Common sense says that chairs and tables exist independently of whether
anyone happens to perceive them or not. We study Berkeley and find him claiming to prove that such
things can only exist so long as they ate perceived by someone. Later on we read some modern realist,
like Alexander, and we are told that Berkeley was wrong, and that chairs and tables can and do exist
unperceived.
Philosophy claims to analyse the general concepts of substance and cause, e.g.; it does not claim to tell us
about particular substances like gold, or as that aqua regia dissolves gold. Chemistry, on the other hand, tells
us a great deal about the various kinds of substances in the world, and how changes in one cause changes in
another.
The method of Philosophy thus resembles that of pure mathematics, at least in the respect that neither has
any use for experiment. There is, however, a very important difference. Philosophy is mainly concerned, not
with remote conclusions, but with the analysis and appraisement of the original premises. For this purpose
analytical power and a certain kind of insight are necessary, and the mathematical method is not of much use.
Logos
Logos is an important term in philosophy, psychology and religion. Originally a word meaning "a ground", "a
plea", "an opinion", "an expectation", "word," "speech," "account," "reason," it became a technical term in
philosophy for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient philosophers used the term in different ways. The
sophists used the term to mean discourse (discussion), and Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned
discourse" or "the argument".
The word “psychology” comes from the combination of words “psyche” and “logos,” which means “the study
of.” Combined, they refer to “the study of the mind.” Aristotle believed that in addition to thinking about
things, one must observe the thing being studied—look at it, listen to it, touch it.
The concept of Logos has numerous translation possibilities:
Reason, explanation, word, argument, narrative, imagination.

2. Epic Poetry and Tragedy
An epic is a long narrative poem about the deeds of warriors. The basic difference between epic and tragedy is
that epic is in narrative form and tragedy is in dramatic form. ... Tragedy has action so, it needs spectacle but
in epic there is no action so, there is no spectacle.
The main difference between epic and tragedy is that epic uses narration whereas tragedy uses dramatization.
Hence, epic is a long poem while tragedy is usually a play. Moreover, an epic is comparatively lengthier a
tragedy.
Aristotle seems to treat tragedy and epic poetry as largely similar. The main difference being that tragedy
conveys all this by means of action, while epic poetry does so by means of language alone.
Doctrine of Monism
'Monism' is a very broad term, applicable to any doctrine which maintains either that there is ultimately only
one thing, or only one kind of thing; it has also been used of the view that there is only one set of true beliefs.
In these senses it is opposed to the equally broad term 'pluralism'.
There are two sorts of definitions for monism:
1. The wide definition: All existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.
2. The restricted definition: The term "monism" is derived from Western philosophy to illustrate positions in the
mind–body problem, it has also been used to illustrate religious traditions.
Different types of monism include:
 Idealistic Monism:
o This doctrine (also called Mentalistic Monism) holds that the mind is all that exists (i.e. the only
existing substance is mental), and that the external world is either mental itself, or an illusion
created by the mind. Thus, there is but one reality, immutable and eternal, which some
(including the ancient Hindu philosophers) have termed God (Idealistic-Spiritual Monism), while
others, such as the Pre-Socratic philosophers like Parmenides, were content to label as Being or
"the One".
 Materialistic Monism:
o This doctrine holds that there is but one reality, matter, whether it be an agglomerate of atoms,
a primitive, world-forming substance, or the so-called cosmic nebula out of which the world
evolved. It holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be reduced to the
physical.
1. Substance monism: "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or
appearances of a single substance.
2. Attributive monism: "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind[.
3. Partial monism: within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"[12]
4. Existence monism: "the view that there is only one concrete object token
Monism is the metaphysical and theological view that all is one, that there are no fundamental divisions, and
that a unified set of laws underlie all of nature. The universe, at the deepest level of analysis, is then one thing
or composed of one fundamental kind of stuff. It sets itself in contrast to Dualism, which holds that ultimately
there are two kinds of substance, and from Pluralism, which holds that ultimately there are many kinds of
substance.
It is based on the concept of the monad (derived from the Greek "monos" meaning "single" and "without
division"). Various Pre-Socratic Philosophers described reality as being monistic, and devised a variety of
explanations for the basis of this reality.
Monism is used in a variety of contexts, (within Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Philosophy of Mind, etc),
but the underlying concept is always that of "oneness". Wherever Dualism distinguishes between body and

3. soul, matter and spirit, object and subject, matter and force, Monism denies such a distinction or merges both
in a higher unity.
Names of Rationlist Philosophers
Rationalists born BCE
 Aristotle
 Pythagoras
 Plato
 Socrates
Rationalists born in the 1st to 4th centuries
 Augustine of Hippo
 Origen of Alexandria
 Plotinus
Rationalists born in the Middle Ages
 Al-Farabi
 Avicenna
 Averroes
 Maimonides
Rationalists born in the 16th to 19th centuries
 René Descartes
 Nicolas Malebranche
 Baruch Spinoza
 Gottfried Leibniz
 Christian Wolff
Rationalists born in the 20th century
 David Chalmers
 Noam Chomsky
 Alvin Plantinga
 Ernest Sosa
 Prabir Ghosh
 Periyar E. V. Ramasamy
 Hosur Narashimaiah
 Abraham Kovoor
Most Important Beliefs in Metaphysics
Metaphysical studies generally seek to explain inherent or universal elements of reality which are not easily
discovered or experienced in our everyday life. As such, it is concerned with explaining the features of reality
that exist beyond the physical world and our immediate senses.
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the
relationship between mind and matter, between substance and attribute, and between potentiality and
actuality. The word "metaphysics" comes from two Greek words that, together, literally mean "after or behind
or among [the study of] the natural".
Metaphysics studies questions related to what it is for something to exist and what types of existence there
are. Metaphysics seeks to answer, in an abstract and fully general manner, the questions:
1. What is there?
2. What is it like?
Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and
effect, and possibility.

4. What is Knowledge:
In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology; the philosopher Plato famously defined
knowledge as "justified true belief", though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be
problematic.
Four standard basic sources: perception, memory, consciousness, and reason.
Platonic epistemology holds that learning is the development of ideas buried deep in the soul.
"Piaget distinguished among three types of knowledge that children acquire: Physical, logical-mathematical,
and social knowledge. Physical knowledge, also called empirical knowledge, has to do with knowledge about
objects in the world, which can be gained through their perceptual properties...
PERCEPTION AND REALLITY
If a tree falls in a forest, and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?
When addressing perception and reality, people’s thoughts on the subject always boil down to their answer to
this age-old thought experiment. Those who say the tree does make a sound would argue that reality and
perception are separate. Those who say the tree does not make a sound would speak to reality and perception
being one and the same. Despite these broad concepts, there is an answer: perception and reality are
different. We can look to both the meaning we assign these words and to science to find a distinction.
The words themselves are not synonyms. Perception evolved from the early Latin word percipere, which
means to understand or grasp. The word has maintained its connotation. Today, the Oxford Dictionary assigns
it two definitions: “the way in which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted” and “the ability to
see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.” The "something" is an entity as it exists in
reality, and the filter is either the five senses or the moral outlook used to interpret the reality. Reality, as
defined by Oxford Dictionary, is “the state of things as they actually exist, as opposed to an idealistic or
notional idea of them.” Instead of being the method through which we observe a thing, reality is the nature or
truth of this thing. Reality, in plain terms, is the way events actually unfold in the real world. Reality is
unaffected by the filters and lenses through which it is observed, and therefore unaffected by a person's
perception.
A more drastic example of a misconception caused by false perception is the Earth’s position in the cosmos.
For much of modern human history, people believed the Earth was the center of the universe. People would
look up and see the stars fill the sky in all directions, and it seemed like the Earth was the center of it all.
Without background knowledge or a modern understanding of science, you would likely perceive that the
Earth is the center of the universe as well. When European astrologists began to explore space and question
the position of the Earth in our universe, it took a long time for the rest of society to accept the practice of
questioning a fundamental belief, let alone the results. Perception can clearly create barriers to progress and
an objective worldview.
Understanding the concept of perception can make a huge difference in happiness and personal well-being. To
see this, People with less knowledge and limited senses seem to live happy and do not worry about many
immoral/wrong acts around them. In contrast people with higher moral understandings and more sensitive,
usually remain worried and upset as the y feel the things going wrong around them.

5. WHY WE NEED LAWS
Laws protect our general safety, and ensure our rights as citizens against abuses by other people, by
organizations, and by the government itself.These exist at the local, state and national levels.
You will always require law in any civilized society.
The reason for this is very simple. Laws provide structure and guidelines on what is considered permissible
behavior and what is not. It is the rule of law that gives a society the protection from confusions and anarchy
that would inevitably arise if there were no rules.
Consider it this way. Can you imagine what it would be like if there were no laws? If people were permitted to
do whatever they wanted? It is an unfortunate fact that there will always be human beings who engage in
what we would consider evil acts. Whether it be murder, armed robbery or any of a thousand other “evils”
that human beings are willing and capable of engaging in, laws not only keep some people from engaging in
those acts, but provide a means of punishing and removing those individuals from society.
If there were no laws, people could commit any act they chose and there would be no means of punishing
them. If someone murdered your mother or your father or some other member of your family, you would
have no means of seeing them punished if there were no laws against murder. Your only option for seeing
justice done would be to attempt to hunt down the murderer and deal with them yourself.
MIND BODY RELATIONSHIP
Typically humans are characterized as having both a mind (nonphysical) and body/brain (physical). This is
known as dualism. Dualism is the view that the mind and body both exist as separate entities.
our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes can positively or negatively affect our biological functioning. In
other words, our minds can affect how healthy our bodies are!
[example: only going to doctor the patient feels better even the treatment has not started.
Mind–body dualism, in philosophy, any theory that mind and body are distinct kinds of substances or natures.
This position implies that mind and body not only differ in meaning but refer to different kinds of entities.
The modern problem of the relationship of mind to body stems from the thought of René Descartes, a 17th-
century French philosopher and mathematician, who gave dualism its classical formulation. Beginning from his
famous “I think, therefore I am”, Descartes developed a theory of mind as an immaterial, substance that
engages in various activities such as rational thought, imagining, feeling, and willing. For example, willing the
arm to be raised causes it to be raised, whereas being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel
pain.
This problem gave rise to other varieties of dualism, such as occasionalism and some forms of parallelism that
do not require direct causal interaction. Occasionalism maintains that apparent links between mental and
physical events are the result of God’s constant causal action.
For many centuries, we have been trying to understand the mind-body relationship in a person.
There are several ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle who expressed their views on mind-body
relationship in a person. For Plato, human being is composed of body and soul. Body is nothing but a prison
house into which his/her soul has been locked. He says “that a person, the subject of interest, is not a human

6. being but rather a soul, an entity distinct from that of human being.” Here we can see a clear-cut distinction of
soul and body in Plato’s thinking.
Dualism simply means a condition of being double. It comes from the Latin word duo meaning two which
denotes a state of two parts. It was originally coined to highlight the co-eternal binary position; for example
good and evil, body and mind, mental and material, dark and light etc. It is supported by several arguments.
In philosophy it is a world view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities, such as
body and mind, the condition of being double or duality. From the point of theology, it speaks about that
human being having two basic natures, the physical and spiritual. There are two kinds of dualism- substance
dualism and property dualism.
Modern Philosophy
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity. It is not a
specific doctrine or school (and thus should not be confused with Modernism), although there are certain
assumptions common to much of it, which helps to distinguish it from earlier philosophy.
Modern philosophy is the period of philosophy ranging from the 17th century to the 20th century. There is not
really a definition, but there are several characteristics of the philosophical era. ... Contemporary philosophy is
the term for the current period.
The period of modern philosophy is marked by the development of science and art. As a result, the same
intellectual spirit that saw the ancient Greeks questioning mythology and asking deep questions returned.
Modern philosophy, thus, consists of a mix of new approaches to philosophy fueled by science, rejections of
religious teachings and, on the other hand, defenses of religion based on the new evidence.
The modern philosophical era also saw the revival of epistemology as one of its central features, as new forms
of science brought forth the question of whether or not experimental data is a suitable source of knowledge.
IDEALISM IN PHILOSOPHY
In philosophy, idealism is the diverse group of metaphysical philosophies which asserts that "reality" is in
some way indistinguishable or inseparable from human understanding and/or perception; that it is in some
sense mentally constituted, or otherwise closely connected to ideas.
Platonic idealism usually refers to Plato's theory of forms or doctrine (principle) of ideas. It holds that only
ideas encapsulate the true and essential nature of things, in a way that the physical form cannot.
The two basic forms of idealism are metaphysical idealism, which asserts the ideality of reality, and
epistemological idealism, which holds that in the knowledge process the mind can grasp only the psychic or
that its objects are conditioned by their perceptibility. In its metaphysics, idealism is thus directly opposed to
materialism—the view that the basic substance of the world is matter and that it is known primarily through
and as material forms and processes. In its epistemology, it is opposed to realism, which holds that in human
knowledge objects are grasped and seen as they really are—in their existence outside and independently of
the mind.
As a philosophy often expressed in bold and expansive syntheses, idealism is also opposed to various
restrictive forms of thought: to skepticism, with occasional exceptions.

7. SPACE AND TIME
Philosophy of space and time is both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The
subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including:
whether time and space exist independently of the mind,
whether they exist independently of one another,
what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow,
whether times other than the present moment exist, and
The concept of space and time: All material bodies have a certain extension: length, breadth, height. They are
variously placed in relation to each other and constitute parts of one or another system.
Space is a form of coordination of coexisting objects and states of matter. It consists in the fact that objects
are extra posed to one another (alongside, beside, beneath, above, within, behind, in front, etc.) and have
certain quantitative relationships. The order of coexistence of these objects and their states forms the
structure of space.
Time can be measured only with the help of certain standards (in seconds. minutes, hours, days, years,
centuries, etc.). The perception of time also allows us to assess the sequence and duration of events.
Depending on our subjective sensations such as merriment or grief, pleasure or boredom, time seems either
short or long. Time is a form of coordination of objects and states of matter in their succession. It consists in
the fact that every state is a consecutive link in a process and has certain quantitative relations with other
states. The order of succession of these objects and states forms the structure of time.
Space and time are universal forms of the existence of matter, the coordination of objects. The universality of
these forms lies in the fact that they are forms of existence of all the objects and processes that have ever
existed or will exist in the infinite universe. Not only the events of the external world, but also all feelings and
thoughts take place in space and time. In the material world everything has extension and duration. Space has
three dimensions: length, breadth and height, but time has only one—from the past through the present to
the future. It is inevitable, unrepeatable and irreversible.
We cannot recover a single moment of existence. The flow of time is beyond our control. We are as helpless in
it as a chip of wood in a river.
However, metaphysical thought separates matter from motion, and both of them, from space and time.
Newton, for example, assumed that space was the empty container of things.
To sum up, everything in the world is temporal. Space and time are absolute.

8. DUALISM
Dualism in Metaphysics is the belief that there are two kinds of reality: material (physical) and immaterial
(spiritual). In Philosophy of Mind, Dualism is the position that mind and body are in some categorical way
separate from each other, and that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical in nature.
Dualism can refer to any philosophy that believes in two. But two of what? There are countless forms of
dualism in different philosophical traditions -far too many to cover in one article! So in this article, we’ll cover
“mind-body” dualism, which is by far the most important form of dualism in modern European/American
philosophy. It should not be confused with “Manicheanism,” which is a completely different idea that
sometimes takes this name!
In the modern world “dualism” most often refers to “mind-body dualism,” or the idea that the mind is
separate from the body. That is, a dualist is someone who believes that knowledge, thought, consciousness,
the self, etc., exist in some way beyond the physical body. Opponents of dualism are called monists, and they
believe that the mind is part of the body — that consciousness is produced entirely by the central nervous
system, and that the self exists entirely in the material world.
Dualismopens up a lot of philosophical and spiritual possibilities that would be otherwise closed. For example,
physical objects aren’t permanent, but can be destroyed — if dualism is true, then it’s possible that our minds
can last forever. In general, dualism is associated with belief in a transcendental soul, whereas monism is
associated with the absence of a transcendental soul (see Transcendence and Materialism). Nonetheless,
many influential philosophers reject dualism because it is unscientific, or because its logical structure is
unpersuasive to them.
Dualism vs. Monism
To understand the difference between monism and dualism, it might help to focus on one particular aspect of
the mind: consciousness, or the mind’s ability to examine its own processes in real time. Consciousness is
arguably the most important aspect of the human mind — without it, would we even be human at all?
Monists and dualists have opposite views on consciousness.
The mind is separate from the body.
Consciousness is a state of mind that can’t be
understood purely in terms of the body. In
order to understand consciousness, we have
to examine abstract logic and/or use faith —
studying the brain is not enough.
The mind is part of the body. Consciousness
can be understood as a function of the human
brain, and therefore the best way to
understand it is to study the brain.
Among modern philosophers, monism is generally more popular than dualism. However, dualism has been
more popular historically, and the logical problems here are far from settled — it remains to be seen whether
dualism can make a comeback.

9. III. Quotes About Dualism
Quote 1
“You don’t have a soul. You are a soul. You have a body.”
No one’s entirely sure who first said this, but it’s often attributed to C.S. Lewis, author of The Chronicles of
Narnia. It’s about dualism because it distinguishes between the body and the soul, whereas a monist would
say that these are two sides of the same coin (or, they might simply deny that the soul exists.) A monist would
be more likely to say “your soul, if you have one, is part of your body.”
Quote 2
“A little breath, a little flesh, and Reason to rule it all — that is myself.” (Marcus Aurelius)
This comes from the writing of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (played by Richard Harris in the movie
Gladiator). People debate sometimes whether Marcus Aurelius was a monist or a dualist — or some other
category altogether! In this quotation, he sounds like a dualist, because he’s suggesting that Reason is
something separate from his “breath and flesh.” However, Marcus Aurelius has other quotations in which he
sounds more like a monist, or like he’s rejecting the whole monist-dualist controversy altogether!
IV. The History and Importance of Dualism
No one knows when human beings first started to believe in an “immaterial soul,” or in the difference
between body and soul — so it’s impossible to trace the historical origins of mind-body dualism. However,
paleoanthropologists (people who study human evolution) have discovered that our prehistoric cousins the
Neanderthals used to bury their dead just like we do today. Is it possible that the Neanderthals believed in a
soul and an afterlife, and that their funeral rituals were designed to give some peace to the departed’s soul?
Of course, all we can do is speculate, but this is certainly a possibility.
In the western tradition, the question of mind-body dualism was first raised by Plato. For Plato, everything in
the material world was a shadow of the Forms, which floated above the world on a more spiritual or “ideal”
level (see Idealism). The body was stuck in the material world, but the mind could break free and explore the
ideal realm at will, just by contemplating philosophical ideas. Plato believed in an immortal soul that would be
released from the physical world after the body’s death.
It’s easy to see how this idea might have influenced religion: early Christians were heavily influenced by Plato,
as were the early Muslims. They found that his idea of the Forms resonated with their concept of a spiritual
divinity. It also gave them philosophical backing for their belief in the immortal soul.
The conversation changed dramatically when Rene Descartes stepped onto the scene in the 17th century.
Through a complex series of arguments, Descartes reached the conclusion that consciousness could not be
explained through monism. This was a revolutionary moment in philosophy, since earlier philosophers had not
been very interested in consciousness. Today, students tend to find that surprising, because the mystery of
consciousness seems so exciting and important to us. But this interest in consciousness is largely due to
Descartes’s influence.
In the last century or so, more and more philosophers have been defending monism, arguing that there is no
“soul” outside the body, and that abilities like consciousness are produced entirely by the body. These
philosophers use modern science to debunk many older ideas about the meaning of “the soul,” and have had
great success in convincing others that some version of monism is more logically persuasive than dualism.
V. Dualism in Popular Culture

10. Example 1
“If we can store music on a compact disc, why can’t we store a man’s intelligence and personality on one?”
(Portal 2)
This quote from the video game Portal 2 expresses a common idea in popular culture: that with sufficiently
advanced technology, you could “code” an entire human brain into a computer hard drive (or even a CD). It’s a
little bit hard to see, but this idea is probably impossible if dualism is true! That is, if the mind exists separate
from the physical body, then how can a physical medium like a hard drive or a CD contain a mind?
Example 2
“Sauron has regained much of his former strength. He cannot yet take physical form, but his spirit has lost
none of its potency.” (Saruman, Lord of the Rings)
In the world of Lord of the Rings, dualism seems to hold true. Throughout the first film, the Dark Lord Sauron is
described as a spiritual being with no body — clearly, this means that the mind and the self can exist in a non-
physical form, and therefore monism is wrong.
VI. Controversies
The main disadvantage of dualism is its metaphysical complexity. Monism has the advantage of putting
forward only one basic substance for the world: matter. Dualism, on the other hand, must address both
matter and mind. This added complexity makes the argument less logically appealing (see Occam’s Razor). In
addition, science is increasingly able to explain things that used to be shrouded in mystery — like
consciousness, memory, the emotions, etc. Since science can only investigate the physical world, its
discoveries almost always come in to support monism.
However, the case for dualism is still strong in its own way! One of the strongest arguments for dualism is the
argument from phenomenology (this roughly translates to “argument from direct perception.” It works like
this:
1. Physical states are equally observable by everyone (if there’s a physical event in my brain, any scientist with
the right sort of scanner can observe it)
2. Phenomena are not equally observable by everyone. That is, no one else can experience what I am
experiencing right now. For example, an observer can tell that I am in pain, but no one knows what that pain
feels like except me. Or, an observer can see that I’m looking at a blue object, but no one knows how I
perceive the color blue.
3. Therefore, phenomena are not physical states
4. The mind includes phenomena
5. Therefore, there’s more to the mind than physical states.
6. Therefore, monism is wrong!
If you were a monist, how would you counter this argument? There are basically two ways to go:
1. Make a pragmatic argument — you simply say, “OK, phenomena are different from mental states, but they
don’t actually matter………Therefore, dualism is still true for all practical purposes.”
2. Another line of argument would be to say that in fact phenomena are observable by everyone, contrary to
statement #2. In this argument, you would have to suggest that technology can eventually reach a point
where it’s possible to peer into other people’s minds and experience exactly what they experience.
3. Finally, you could argue that dualism and monism are both wrong! You might, for example, argue that mind
and matter are just two of the many dimensions of existence. This is the approach frequently taken in
Buddhist and Hindu philosophies, which reject the narrow monism and dualism of the Western tradition.