3. There are several different aspects of
vocabulary that need to be considered when
teaching students how to use reading in
order to learn effectively.
Graphic organizers
Morphology
Context
Word Relationships
Extending an interest in vocabulary
4. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
•Graphic organizers are visual representations
that demonstrate how words are related to
each other. Word walls, pictomaps, logomaps,
semantic feature analysis, word maps and
semantic maps are all examples of graphic
organizes. Lines are used to connect shapes in
order to help the student visualize how the
words or ideas are connected. Making
connections between ideas, even in the
earliest of stages by using pictomaps,
students can begin making important
connections between vocabulary words.
5. This is an example of a semantic map. The
main idea or word is located in the middle,
and students can help come up with other
words that relate to or describe that central
word.
Pictomaps are great for students that
are just learning to read. This way
they can visualize how these labeled
pictures are related to the main idea
located in the middle.
6. MORPHOLOGY
Morphology involves learning important tools such as
identifying root words, suffixes, prefixes, compound words,
and contractions. It is necessary for students to make the
connection that a single root word can have different
meanings when letters are added onto or taken away from
the root and that two words put together also make new
meaning.
7. ROOT WORDS, SUFFIXES, PREFIXES
This fun website can help students learn more about root words,
suffixes, and prefixes:
http://www.ezschool.com/Games/English/prefixsuffix/index.html
CONTRACTIONS
•A fun game that could help with contractions can be located at the
following website: http://www.oswego.org/ocsd-web/
match/matchgeneric.asp?filename=jwildecontractions
•A few writing activities with answer keys can be found at this website:
http://www.superteacherworksheets.com/phonics/contractions1_WBMQ
M.pdf
8. COMPOUND WORDS
Something as simple as the video located below can aid in helping
children understand compound words.
9. CONTEXT
One cannot stress the importance of context. When a word is taken out
of context it can result in complete misunderstandings and become
totally useless to the reader. Students must first be taught how to use
context clues in order to be successful at reading to learn. There are
several types of context clues that are used including synonyms,
antonyms, definitions, and even examples within the text. It is
important to use different reinforcement activities in order to teach the
students how to use context clues. Begin by writing a sentence with a
word missing and providing a word bank with a few options. Then let
the student choose the word they believe fits best. Follow up by asking
them why they made that choice. Another good activity is to provide
sentences that contain homographs which are words that are spelled
the same but have different meanings. Have students determine which
way the word should be pronounced and why they chose that option.
This will help students understanding that even though the word may
look the same, it would sound silly to read it with the other
pronunciation.
10. I felt that the video located below did an excellent job of describing
context and could also help students develop a better understanding of
why it is important.
11. WORD RELATIONSHIPS
Students need to understand the different kinds of relationships that words
have with each other in order to increase the comprehension of what it is they
are reading.
•Antonyms: words that have opposite
meanings
•Synonyms: words that have the same or
similar meanings
•Homophones: words that sound the same
but have different spellings and meanings
•Homographs: words that have the same
spelling but are pronounced differently
•Figurative Language: words that are not
literal in meaning
•Multiple Meanings: the various meanings
that words can have
12. •Some reinforcement activities for synonyms and antonyms could be to create a
synonym or antonym word wall. The teacher will choose a word, and the
students may add on to the wall when they find words that fit. Students could
be given a newspaper article in which they must locate words that they could
substitute synonyms for. The same could be done for antonyms.
•I would reinforce homographs with a verbal fill in the blank method. I would
first write the homograph on the board, tear. Afterwards I would have the
students look at two sentences, “She had a streaming down her face,” and
“She likes to the pages from her books.” We would then verbally discuss
why we made the choices we did.
•An activity that could be used for homophones would be similar to the one
used for the homographs where students will be given a sentence with a
missing word, such as, “My dad saw a while he was walking out in the
woods.” The students will be given two words to select from i.e. dear and deer.
Another activity would be to complete a homophone game where the student
could move his game piece to the correct square if he locates the
right homophone.
•Figurative language can be explained
by reading books such as Crazy Like
a Fox by Loreen Leedy and just
through a lot of explanation. Similes
and metaphors can be a hard concept
to grasp.
13. EXTENDING AN INTEREST IN VOCABULARY
Making vocabulary interesting and appealing to students is incredibly
important in helping students acquire a larger vocabulary. Some techniques
that you can use to help students develop a larger interest in increasing their
vocabulary do not even require direct teaching of vocabulary.
•Introducing students to things they might not be familiar with could
encourage interest in learning what the object is and what it does. Things
can be brought from home or experiences like cooking and painting might
have students thinking and asking, “What is that? What does it do?” Hands-on
learning is a great way to learn new vocabulary. Afterwards you should
always ask your students questions about the experiences they are
encountering with the objects.
•Letting students watch educational videos or films and letting them bring
magazines or books from home can also help expand vocabulary.
•Reading books to your students could be especially helpful to students that
have weak vocabulary skills.
•Having students use their writing skills might also create interest in
vocabulary. I like the idea of having students go on listening walks where
they have to be quiet the entire walk and
are then asked to come back and describe
what they heard on their walk. Having
students write descriptive poems is another
good tool.
What is that?
14. Fluency means being able to read words automatically without having to spend
too much trying to decode them, grouping words together in the proper way,
and reading words with the author’s intended expression. When all of these
things are happening at the same time, comprehension of the material can
begin. A fluent reader will read at a good pace, with expression, and not have to
spend time decoding words. A less fluent reader will misunderstand or not
comprehend the entire message of the passage because they will spend too
much time decoding what they are reading.
Major Fluency Strategies
Fluency Miscues
Decreasing Faulty Habits
15. MAJOR FLUENCY STRATEGIES
There are many ways to help improve fluency in students. Some examples are
listed below.
•Echo reading – A skilled reader will say a phrase and fellow students will
immediately repeat the phrase. You should start with phrases then move to
sentences as fluency skills improve.
•Paired reading – A less skilled reader is paired with a more fluent reader. This
activity will help model the appropriate fluency skills.
•Readers’ theatre – Students will repeatedly read their scripted parts until
comfortable with reading the passage but will not be asked to memorize it.
Then a theatre is put on where costumes may be involved in which the students
will read from their scripts.
•Repeated reading – Students will practice their passages again and again until
they can read it with no mistakes.
•Tape assisted reading – Students will read their books along with a pre-recorded
reading of the book.
•Choral reading – Students read together in unison. This helps less fluent
readers learn expression through their more fluent peers’ expressions.
16. FLUENCY MISCUES
A fluency miscue is when a student makes errors while reading and differs
from what is written on the page. Common miscues include reversals,
omissions, substitutions, repetitions, insertions, and non-pronunciations.
Oops!
17. Reversing letters, words, or the order that words are in can be caused by
immaturity, lack of attention or incorrect left-to-right eye movement. It is
important to note that if the reversal does not change the meaning of the
sentence that it should simply be ignored. Fortunately there are several
activities that can help with reversals.
•Color coding the edges of the desk can help. Green tape on the left side for
“start” and red tape on the right side for “stop.”
•Giving the struggling student a green wrist band for the left hand and a red
wristband for the right hand is a useful tool for directionality.
•Placing an arrow under the word that is being confused that points to the
right can help the student understanding the direction in which her eyes
should be moving.
•Having students type letters on the computer keyboards can also be
helpful.
18. •If the student is having problems
reversing letters, an activity like the
one to the right could be helpful.
•If the student is reversing the
order that the words are in, the
activity to the left might
provide a great resource
19. •Omissions can occur for many different reasons including, reading too
quickly, being careless or nervous, or not knowing how to pronounce the
word. Some techniques to help with omitting words include using a marker in
order to keep their place, choral reading, echo reading or simply telling the
student to slow down if he is attempting to read too quickly.
•Substitutions usually occur when a student uses a similar word in looks or in
meaning that is different from what is in the written text. Most substitutions
should be ignored if the mistake does not change the meaning of the text.
Another technique could be to ask the student to re-read the sentence if the
meaning has been changed. Choral reading can also be useful to redirect
substitutions.
•Repetition often occurs because the student is trying to decode a word or
message in order to understand what it is she is reading. The student may
need to be checked for sight problems, choral reading can be helpful, making
the student aware of the repetitions if he does not realize he is doing it, or
developing a card with a block cut out of it so that the student can highlight
ever word as he is reading.
20. •Insertions are usually caused by the student embellishing or anticipating what
comes next. This should only be corrected if it is changing the meaning of the
passage. Having students slow down while reading or pointing at each word
should help eliminate this problem.
•Non-pronunciation may be a sign of students not having the skill or confidence
to want to say the word. Sometimes the student is waiting for the teacher or
another peer to finish the word for them. You should give them several seconds
to try to say the word before telling them what it is. Rereading the previous
sentence can also be helpful. If the student skips the word and continues to
read the sentence he may be able to go back and figure out the word. One of
the most important things to remember is to always encourage the student and
to thank him for trying his hardest.
21. DECREASING FAULTY HABITS
Faulty habits can give the teacher clues that there is something not quite right
with the student’s fluency. Some of these habits are using the finger to point at
words as the student reads, the head moving back and forth while reading, the
lips moving while the student is reading silently, and the student speaking while
reading when silent reading is taking place.
•Using finger pointing in the early years is not technically a bad thing and may
actually assist young readers. If needed, you can take a transparent sheet, cut it
into a smaller rectangle and draw a line in the middle of it so students can see
above and below what they are reading but still feel confident about their place.
•When the student is using head movements the best ways to correct this
behavior is to make them aware that they are doing it. Another way would be to
have the student cup her head in her hands so that she would be aware when
her head is moving.
•Lip movements and sub vocalizations can be curbed with the same techniques.
Having the student hold a pencil between her lips while reading will help her be
aware of when her lips are moving or when she is trying to talk during silent
reading.
22. Text comprehension is when the student can make
meaningful connections and truly understand what the
passage or message means. It is also very important to
tell your students what it is that you are trying to teach
them before you begin teaching comprehension.
•Preparing Students to Read
•Organizational Structures
•Elaborative Structures
•Questioning Structures
•Teaching Structures
23. PREPARING STUDENTS TO READ
Students need to learn that there are two types of reading, reading for
learning purposes and reading for enjoyment. Relating the new information
to prior knowledge is very important along with previewing and predicting
what is to come. Brainstorming, reading out loud, using think-sheets and
the K-W-L technique are good ways to prepare your students for the
reading.
•Brainstorming is a good way to get your students thinking about what they
already know about the topic.
•Read-alouds provide the students with an opportunity to listen and enjoy,
have fluent reading modeled to them, and to learn new things.
•Think-sheets allow students to learn the author’s pattern of organization
and to predict what some of the content of the book might be.
•K-W-L (what the students think they Know, Would like to know, and have
Learned) The K helps students call on prior knowledge and relates to any
background knowledge they may have on the subject, the W helps develop
an interest in the reading, and the L helps students reflect on what they
have learned in comparison with what they thought they knew before the
book was read.
24. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES
Knowing how text is structured and organized helps students not only
comprehend but also recall the information better. Organizational structures
include comparison/contrast, cause and effect, details and facts, listing, main
ideas, sequencing and summarizing.
Semantic maps can be used to help find the main ideas and also assist in
listing details and facts. Cause and effect charts can be set up as situations
arise in the book. You can ask the students to predict what the effect might
by because of a certain cause. A book such as If You Give a Moose a Muffin by
Laura Numeroff is a great way to show sequencing as well. You can ask
students to compare and contrast characters or locations in the book or to
compare and contrast one book to another. Have students list details that
they remember about the book, characters, and locations. For sequencing the
teacher can make cards that show events that happen throughout the book.
Then the cards would need to be assembled in the order in which they
occurred in the book. Questions like, “Which event took place first? Second?”
and so forth could be asked to ensure that students comprehend what
sequencing means. Summarizing can be taught orally or written. You could
read students a story and ask them to tell you about the story using only one
or two sentences. Summarizing the events of the day is also an
affective way to teach summarization.
25. ELABORATIVE STRUCTURES
Elaborative structures start giving students the tools they need for
personalizing their reactions and giving deeper meaning in their responses. It
allows students to connect things they already know to the text. Elaborative
structures include things like inference, critical thinking, mental imagery, and
metacognition.
•Inference involves students making hypothesis based on their schemata.
Show students a video and then stop it right at a climactic point. Have the
students predict what might happen next. This way they have some kind of
an idea of what is happening but will have to infer what might happen next.
•Critical thinking entails students making judgments or evaluations while
reading. A good activity for this is after reading a book supply several
quotes that a character from the book might have said. At least one of the
suggestions should be false. See if the students can identify which one of the
statements the character would not likely have said. This requires them to
think critically about what they know about the character and make an
inference as to whether or not the character would say that.
26. •Mental imagery, or the making of pictures in the mind while reading or being
read to, is an important skill for readers. I would have my students sit quietly
and tell them that I am going to read them a story, but I want them to close
their eyes and try to picture what they are hearing in their minds. Another
activity would be to read the children a story and have them draw a picture of
something they heard in the story.
•Metacognition is the ability to monitor what we are understanding as we are
reading. Having metacognition means that as the reader is reading they know
what the purpose and plan for the reading has in store. The best plan of action
for reinforcing metacognition is developing a plan and having questions
premade for students that involves before, during and after reading i.e. what is
my purpose for reading, do I understand what I am reading, and what can I do
to help me remember.
27. QUESTIONING STRUCTURES
Questioning structures help
students learn how to formulate
their own questions.
•Inquiry charts help make connections between what the student
already knows and what they gained through other sources. A chart is
made where key questions are asked at the top. For each question the
student will answer what they think they already know. Several different
materials will be provided so that the students can answer the
questions from each source. At the bottom of the chart the students
give a summary of what they have learned from all of the different
sources.
•Reciprocal teaching must be modeled first and will work in groups. The
students will then be asked to predict and make a list of what they
might learn. The teacher will read specific sections of the text out loud.
After the sections are read, the teacher will ask questions about
important parts of the text. Finally clarify the important
parts of speech and concepts.
28. TEACHING STRUCTURES
Teaching structures are strategies for teaching students to read. They are very
specific and draw on background, prior knowledge, and use silent and oral
reading. Teaching structures include guided reading, directed reading, and
directed reading-thinking.
•Guided reading is where students are placed into groups according to their
reading abilities and given books that they can easily decode. Teachers guide
their students, monitor and help with the students’ reading and reading
strategies. Teachers guide the students from the basic levels to the fluency
levels. Talking about the pictures within the book and reading to the students
are good examples of guided reading.
•Directed reading is mainly teacher directed meaning the teacher asks the
questions and determines the purpose of the reading. This is very useful with
material that the students are not familiar with. The first step in DRA is
explaining the new vocabulary and locations and asking the students about the
title and pictures. After the purpose is stated, the students read the passage to
silently to themselves. After the silent reading the teacher asks questions about
whether the students’ predictions were correct or incorrect and asking them to
prove why. Skills development is next where students work on specific skills
that the teacher believes needs work after seeing problems or new
skills are learned. Finally students are involved in
follow up activities like drama or writing in order to
enrich the experience and learning.
29. Directed reading-thinking activities are better for familiar materials and
expects the student to start taking responsibility for his work. Teachers
direct students to view the titles, heading, subheadings themselves and
guides their predictions by asking questions. Students read to themselves
for the sole purpose of determining whether their predictions are correct
and should be able to change predictions as they go. Just as in the
directed reading activity students are asked to prove through the text
whether their predictions were correct or incorrect. The teacher will then
model skills used by the author, and then the students participate in an
engaging activity to enrich their experience.
