Aleem Ashraf

psychology aleem ashraf research research methods substance science substance use psychopharmacology substance dependence psychiatry disease model fmri brain psychobiology brain anatomy ct scan physiology of behavior neil r carlson biology ablation physiology mri nervous system randomization experiment true experiment subcontinent shah wali allah muslim psychology shah waliullah spirituality three-tiered model muslim philosophy criminal psychology forensic psychology criminal responsibility insanity criminality crime bartol mental health content criterion concurrent construct validity testing reliability caffeine coca abuse stimulants dsm addiction depressants tolerance amphetamine methamphetamine cocaine drug freud withdrawal dependence