This document discusses social presence in online learning. It begins by defining social presence and discussing its importance. Social presence is the ability of participants in an online community to project themselves socially and emotionally as real people. Higher social presence is linked to greater student satisfaction, perceived learning, and actual learning. The document then examines how to measure social presence through analyzing language in online discussions for indicators of affect, open communication, and group cohesion. Finally, it provides recommendations for how instructors can support the development of social presence, such as using icebreaker activities, modeling social behaviors, providing frequent feedback, and designing discussions that encourage interaction between students.

1. social presence in online learning:
Karen Swan
University of Illinois Springfield

2. • What is social presence?
• What difference does it make?
• How can we support its development in online
classes?

3. “The theory of social presence is perhaps the
most popular construct used to describe and
understand how people socially interact in
online learning environments. However, despite
its intuitive appeal, researchers and
practitioners alike often define and
conceptualize this popular construct differently.
In fact, it is often hard to distinguish between
whether someone is talking about social
interaction, immediacy, intimacy, emotion,
and/or connectedness when they talk about
social presence.” —Patrick Lowenthal
What is social presence?

4. immediacy
(face-to-face communications research)
• the psychological distance between communicators
• verbal immediacy behaviors – ie., giving praise,
soliciting viewpoints, humor, self-disclosure
• non-verbal immediacy behaviors – ie., physical
proximity, touch, eye-contact, facial expressions,
gestures
(Weiner & Mehrabian, 1968)
What is social presence?

5. IMMEDIACY
COGNITIVE LEARNING
STATE
MOTIVATION AFFECTIVE LEARNING
(Christophel, 1990; Richmond, 1990; Frymeir, 1994)
IMMEDIACY
COGNITIVE LEARNING
AFFECTIVE LEARNING
(Kelley & Gorham, 1988; Gorham, 1988)
(Richmond, Gorham & McCroskey; 1987; Gorham, 1988)
LEARNING MODEL
COGNITIVE
LEARNING
AFFECTIVE
LEARNING
IMMEDIACY
(Rodriguez, Plax & Kearney, 1996)
AFFECTIVE LEARNING MODEL
teacher immediacy
What is social presence?

6. • original work on social presence would suggest that (text-
based) computer mediated communication (CMC) has very
low social presence
• other media – two way audio, two-way video, face-to-face
communication would have increasingly greater social
presence
social presence = quality of a medium to project the salience of
others; ie. immediacy
(Short, Williams & Christie, 1976)
What is social presence?

7. • social presence theory (Short, Williams & Christie, 1976)
ranking by users (impersonal/personal, unsociable/sociable,
insensitive/sensitive, cold/warm) of various media
• media richness theory (Rice, 1992) medium’s capacity for
immediate feedback, senses involved, personalization, and
language variety
• affective channel capacity (Picard, 1997) amount of
affective information/total amount of information passed
through a media channel
What is social presence?

8. What is social presence?

9. • experience suggests otherwise
• several studies show that experienced CMC users rate
email and computer conferencing as rich or richer
than telephone and face-to-face conversations
(Gunawardena, 1995)
• rather than being impersonal, CMC often seems to be
“hyper-personal” (Walther, 1992)
social presence = the degree to which one is perceived as a
“real person” in mediated communication
What is social presence?

10. cognitive
presence
social
presence
teaching presence
COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY FRAMEWORK
(Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000)
What is social presence?

11. the ability of participants in a virtual community of inquiry to project
themselves socially and emotionally, and to perceive each other as
“real people”
social
presence
What is social presence?
affective expression
group cohesion
open communication

12. What is social presence?
social presence = a kind of literacy (Whiteside, 2018)

13. What is social presence
& how can we measure it?

14. paralanguage
(PL)
features of text outside
formal syntax used to convey
emotion (eg. emoticons,
punctuation)
Someday . . . . .; How awful for you :-( ;
Mathcad is definitely NOT stand alone
software; Absolutely!!!!!!
Asteroff, 1985;
Poole, 2000;
Rourke, 2001
emotion
(EM)
use of descriptive words that
indicate feelings (ie., love,
hate, sad, silly, etc.)
When I make a spelling mistake, I look
and feel stupid; I get chills when I think
of. . .
emergent
value
(VL)
expressing personal values
beliefs, & attitudes
I think that commercialization is a
necessary evil; I feel our children have
the same rights
emergent
humor
(H)
use of humor – teasing,
cajoling, irony, sarcasm
God forbid leaving your house to go to
the library; Now it is like brushing my
teeth (which I assure you I do quite well)
Gorham, 1988;
Poole, 2000
self-disclosure
(SD)
sharing personal information,
expressing vulnerability
I sound like an old lady; I am a closet
writer; We had a similar problem. . .
Gorham, 1988;
Rourke, 1999
AFFECTIVE INDICATORS
How can we measure social presence?
(Swan, 2003; Swan & Shih, 2005)

15. greetings &
salutations (GS)
greetings, closures Hi Mary; That’s it for now, Tom Poole, 2000; Rourke, 2001
vocatives
(V)
addressing classmates
by name
You know, Tamara. . . ; I totally
agree with you Katherine
Christenson & Menzel, 1988;
Poole, 2000
group reference
(GR)
refering to the group as
we, us, our
We need to be educated; Our use
of the Internet may not be free
Gorham, 1988; Rourke, 2001
social sharing
(SS)
sharing information
unrelated to the course
Happy Birthday!!to both of you!!! Bussman, 1998; Rourke,
2001
course
reflection (RF)
reflection on the course
itself
A good example was the CD-ROM
we read about
emergent
COHESIVE INDICATORS
(Swan, 2003; Swan & Shih, 2005)
How can we measure social presence?

16. acknowledgement
(AK)
refering directly to the
contents of others’
messages; quoting
Those old machines sure were
something!; I agree that it is the
quickest way
Rourke, 2001
agreement/
disagreement
(AG)
expressing agreement or
disagreement with others’
messages
I’m with you on that; I agree;
I think what you are saying is
absolutely right
Poole, 2000;
Rourke, 2001
approval
(AP)
expressing approval, offering
praise, encouragement
You make a good point; Good luck as
you continue to learn; Right on!
Rourke, 2001
invitation
(I)
asking questions or otherwise
inviting response
Any suggestions?; How old are your
students?; Would you describe that
for me
Gorham, 1988;
Rourke, 2001
personal advice
(PA)
offering specific advice to
classmates
Also the CEC website might have some
references; I would be happy to
forward them
emergent
INTERACTIVE INDICATORS
(Swan, 2003; Swan & Shih, 2005)
How can we measure social presence?

17. SOCIAL PRESENCE OF PEERS
1. Online or web-based education is an excellent medium for social
interaction.
2. I felt comfortable conversing through this medium.
3. The “Meet Your Classmates” section enabled me to form a sense of
online community.
4. I felt comfortable participating in course discussions.
5. I felt comfortable interacting with other participants in the course.
6. I felt that other participants in the course acknowledged my point of
view.
7. I was able to form distinct individual impressions of some course
participants.
8. Online discussions enabled me to form a sense of community.
(Richardson & Swan, 2003)
How can we measure social presence?

18. SOCIAL PRESENCE OF INSTRUCTORS
1. The instructor created a feeling of online community.
2. The instructor facilitated discussions in the course.
3. I was able to form distinct individual impressions of the instructor
in this course.
4. I felt comfortable conversing with the instructor through this
medium.
5. My point of view was acknowledged by the instructor.
(Swan & Shih, 2005)
How can we measure social presence?

19. # statement 1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree
14 Getting to know other course participants gave me a
sense of belonging in the course. 1 2 3 4 5
15 I was able to form distinct impressions of some course
participants. 1 2 3 4 5
16 Online or web-based communication is an excellent
medium for social interaction. 1 2 3 4 5
17 I felt comfortable conversing through the online medium. 1 2 3 4 5
18 I felt comfortable participating in the course discussions. 1 2 3 4 5
19 I felt comfortable interacting with other course
participants.
1 2 3 4 5
20 I felt comfortable disagreeing with other course
participants while still maintaining a sense of trust. 1 2 3 4 5
21 I felt that my point of view was acknowledged by other
course participants. 1 2 3 4 5
22 Online discussions help me to develop a sense of
collaboration. 1 2 3 4 5
(Arbaugh, Cleveland-Innes, Garrison, Ice, Richardson & Swan, 2008)
How can we measure social presence?

20. • content analysis shows that students project their personalities
into online discussion (Gunawardena, Lowe & Anderson,1997;
Swan, 2002, 2003)
• students make up for lack of visual & auditory cues through the
use of purely text-based indicators of social presence
(Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Tu, 2000; Danchak, Walther, &
Swan, 2001)
• studies examining CMC participants’ experience of social
presence -- “participants create social presence by projecting
their identities and building online communities” (Walther,
1994; Gunawardena, 1995; Tu & McIssac, 2001)
What difference does it make?

21. the ability of participants in a virtual community of inquiry to
project themselves socially and emotionally, and to perceive each
other as “real people”
social
presence
What is it?
53
61 62 59
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0
50
100
150
200
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1 2 3 4
frequencies
modules
responses & indicators X module
RESP
RESP
RESP
RESP
AFF
AFF
AFF
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INTR
INTR
INTR
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COH COH
COH
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What difference does it make?
(Swan, 2002, 2003)

22. § social presence predicts over 21% of the variance in
retention
§ Online communication is an excellent medium for social interaction.
§ I was able to form distinct impressions of some course participants.
(Boston, Diaz, Gibson, Ice, Richardson & Swan, 2009)
What difference does it make?

23. social presence predicts satisfaction (Walther, 1994;
Gunawardena, Lowe & Anderson,1997; Tu, 2002; Richardson &
Swan, 2003; Maeda, Caskurlu, Lv & Richardson, 2017),
perceived learning (Gunawardena, Lowe & Anderson, 1997;
Danchak, Walther, & Swan, 2001; Richardson & Swan, 2003;
Maeda, Caskurlu, Lv & Richardson, 2017) and
actual learning (Picciano, 2003; Swan, Day, Bogle & Matthews,
2014) in online courses
What difference does it make?

24. (Shea & Bidjermo, 2008)
social presence
teaching presence cognitive presence
.52 (.52)** .52 (.49)**
.49 (.47)**
What difference does it make?
social presence is a mediating variable between teaching and cognitive
presence

25. How can we support the development of social presence?

26. RESEARCH FINDING
Verbal immediacy behaviors can
lesson the psychological distance
between communicators online;
overall sense of social presence is
linked to satisfaction, learning,
and retention in courses &
programs
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Develop initial course activities to encourage the
development of swift trust
Model & encourage the use of verbal immediacy
behaviors in interactions with students
Encourage students to share experiences & beliefs in
online discussion
Explicitly introduce the notion of social presence &
verbal immediacy to students
How can we support the development of social presence?

27. RESEARCH FINDING
Student learning is related to the
quantity & quality of postings in
online discussions & to the value
instructors place on them
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Make participation in discussion a significant part
of course grades
Develop grading rubrics for discussion
participation
Require discussion participants to respond to their
classmates postings &/or to respond to all
responses to their own postings
Stress the unique nature & potential of online
discussion in student orientations
How can we support the development of social presence?

28. RESEARCH FINDING
Learning occurs socially within
communities of practice; there is
greater variability in sense of
community ratings among online
courses than in F2F courses;
sense of community ratings
correlated w/ indicators of
teaching presence
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Design community building activities
Model the use of cohesive immediacy behaviors in
all interactions with students
Develop initial course activities to encourage the
development of swift trust
Develop group activities and tasks
Make discussion an important part of courses
How can we support the development of social presence?

29. RESEARCH FINDING
Course design is significantly
related to the development of
social presence
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Design for the development of social presence by
including multiple and varied discussion forums and
group activities
Develop initial course activities to encourage the
development of swift trust
How can we support the development of social presence?

30. RESEARCH FINDING
Instructors develop social
presence through their
interactions with students in a
variety of activities
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Provide timely & supportive feedback
Include social presence indicators in your feedback
to students
Reference related activities and student responses
in feedback to students
How can we support the development of social presence?

31. RESEARCH FINDING
The quantity and quality of
instructor interactions with
students is linked to student
learning; social presence
develops from teaching presence
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Provide frequent opportunities for both public
and private interactions with students
Establish clear expectations for instructor-student
interactions
Provide timely & supportive feedback
How can we support the development of social presence?

32. RESEARCH FINDING
Instructor social presence and
the social presence of peers are
different & support different
parts of the educational
experience; similarly different
students perceive & project
differing amounts of social
presence
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Design differing kinds of activities to support the
development of instructor & peer social
presence such as journaling and discussions
Orient students to the notion of social learning
and the importance of the social construction of
knowledge
Reward interactive immediacy behaviors
How can we support the development of social presence?

33. RESEARCH FINDING
Social presence develops in
online discussions over time --
cohesive indicators are
particularly important for
building community at the
beginning of a course; affective
indicators are always important;
interactive indicators become
more important as the course
progresses
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Model the use of social presence indicators and
encourage students to use them through your
responses
Stress cohesive indicators in your postings at the
beginning of a course, but as the course
progresses encourage interactivity
Require discussion participants to respond to
their classmates postings &/or to respond to all
responses to their own postings
How can we support the development of social presence?

34. RESEARCH FINDING
There is greater learning from
online discussion when desired
performance outcomes are
scaffolded
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Use content & process scaffolds to support
discourse behaviors
Use peer review of discussion postings to shape
responses
Develop grading rubrics for discussion that
reward desired cognitive behaviors
Attend to subject lines
How can we support the development of social presence?

35. RESEARCH FINDING
Discussion threads die when
participants don’t respond to
them immediately
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Make students responsible for sustaining
discussion threads
Make students summarize discussion threads
Require students to incorporate materials from
the discussions in their assignments
How can we support the development of social presence?

36. RESEARCH FINDING
Vicarious interaction in online
course discussion may be an
important source of learning
from them
How can we support its development in online classes?
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Encourage & support vicarious interaction
Require discussion summaries that identify steps in
the knowledge creation process
Use tracking mechanisms to reward reading as well
as responding to messages

37. How can we support the development of social presence?
technological effects

38. RESEARCH FINDING
Audio feedback in written
assignments enhances social
presence & learning.
RESEARCH FINDING
Messaging, to both individuals &
groups, can enhance instructor
social presence but results are
mixed
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Embed audio feedback in written assignments.
Do voice over commentary on essays as you
read them.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Incorporate social messages in
announcements.
Use email & texting to communicate with
individual students.
Journal with students regularly to “stay in
touch.”
How can we support the development of social presence?

39. RESEARCH FINDING IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Pictures added to introductions
or other “meet your classmates”
activities increase student
perceptions of the social
presence of their classmates
Encourage students to attach photographs to their
introductions
Create a “photo roster” for your class & share with
students so they can consult it when participating in
discussion
Have students choose five pictures of themselves to
put in a “virtual paper bag” to share with their
classmates
How can we support the development of social presence?

40. RESEARCH FINDING IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Online video, both synchronous &
asynchronous, can add to
perceived & projected social
presence
Use video to introduce students to course, yourself,
modules, assignments, etc.
Hold synchronous video office hours.
Use video feedback on assignments.
Incorporate digital storytelling in assignments.
Use asynchronous video in discussions.
How can we support the development of social presence?

41. RESEARCH FINDING
Social media, such as Facebook &
Twitter, can support the
development of social presence,
but results are mixed.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Use Facebook as an LMS to elicit greater affective
interaction among students.
Use Twitter to support just-in-time social
interactions (like interactions before & after class &
in halls).
How can we support the development of social presence?

42. • Media alone does not establish social presence -- people do.
• The way you use communication technologies matters & your
context should always influence your use
• Teachers & students need practice using new communication
technologies
• Students & faculty do better with emerging technologies when you
share the purpose for using them, . . .
• . . . and when you give students technology options if appropriate
(Lowenthal & Mulder, 2017)
How can we support the development of social presence?
technology tips

43. Social Presence in Online Learning
Knowledge is socially constructed; learning is a
social process; it is therefore important to
deliberately support the development of social
presence in online classes to support that process,
whatever the format.

44. Karen Swan
University of Illinois Springfield
kswan4@uis.edu
COLRS (Center for Online Learning, Research & Service)
http://www.uis.edu/colrs