Explaining research philosophies and paradigms. Explaining the ontology, epistemology and of different research paradigms. In addition, explaining how to innovate in research using pragmatic research. Finally, explaining Grounded Theory at the end of it.

1. Research Philosophies –
Grounded Theory
ESUUK Research Methodologies Seminars
7th March, 6:30 PM London Time
Amgad Badewi, PMP, ITIL
Cranfield University
A.badewi@cranfield.ac.uk
LinkedIn: http://www.linkedin.com/pub/amgad-badewi/59/612/910
Google +: +AmgadBadewi
Twitter: @AmgadBadewi

2. Outlines
• Research Paradigms
• Grounded Theory Research

3. Ontology Epistemology
Research paradigms
Accounting – Finance –
Marketing & HR
Quantitative - Statistics
Testing Hypotheses
Operations Management – Information
Systems
Qualitative – Narrative – Hermeneutics
Social Construction
of reality
Objectivity
Subjective
Reality is external
Reality is Internal
Reality is single
No Single reality
Positivist
Interpretivist

4. Introduction
• Research Paradigms
• Positivist
• Post-Positivist
• Constructionist
• Pragmatism
4

5. Logical Positivism
• Ontology (nature of reality): positivists believe that there is a
single reality
• Epistemology (the relationship of the knower to the known):
believes that the knower and the known are independent.
• Axiology (role of values in inquiry): positivists believe that
inquiry is value free.
• Generalisations: Positivists believe that time- and context free
generalisations are possible
• Causal Linkages: Positivists believe that there are real causes
that are temporally precedent to or simultaneous with effects.
• Deductive Logic: There is an emphasis on arguing from
general to particular, or an emphasis on a priori hypotheses (or
theory)
(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.7)
5

6. Post-positivism
• The same as positivists but they are different in
• Ontology (Nature of reality): our understanding of
reality is constructed.
• Value-ladenness of inquiry: research is influenced
by the values of investigators.
• Theory-ladenness of facts: Research is
influenced by the theory or hypotheses or
framework that an investigator uses.
(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.8)
6

7. Interpretivism, Naturalism,
Constructionism
• Ontology (Nature of reality): Naturalists believe that there
are multiple constructed realities.
• Epistemology (the relationship of the knower to the known):
Naturalism believe that the knower and the known are
inseparable.
• Axiology (the role of values in inquiry): Naturalists believe
that time- and context-free generalisation are not possible.
• Causal Linkages: Naturalists believe that it is impossible to
distinguish causes from effects.
• Inductive Logic: There is an emphasis on arguing from the
particular to the general, or an emphasis on “grounded”
theory.
(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.8)
7

8. Research paradigms
Paradigm
Positivism
Post-positivism
Pragmatism
Methods
Quantitative
Primarily
Quantitative
Quantitative
Qualitative
Primarily Deductive
Deductive + Inductive
Logic
Deductive
Epistemology Objective
view.
point
Knower
of Modified
and Findings
known are dualism
dualism. Both
+ Qualitative
Objective
probably subjective
objectively “True.”
Constructivism
points
Inductive
and Subjective point of
of view. Knower and
view
known
are
inseparable .
Axiology
Inquiry is value free
Inquiry
involves Values play a large Inquiry
values, but they may role
be controlled
Ontology
Naïve realism
in
is
interpreting bound.
results
Critical
or Accept
external Relativism
transcendental
reality.
realism
explanations that best
produce
8
outcomes.
Choose
desired
value

9. Current research
paradigms
Positivist
Quantitative
Qualitative
Interpretivist
Traditional
Simulations,
Descriptive
Statistics
(Yin)
Traditional
(Walsham
, Stake)

10. Grounded Theory
•
•
•
•
•
•
What is grounded Theory
Grounded Theory Process
Data Collection Methods
Coding Methods
Example from my research
European Journal of Information Systems reviewer
notes about Grounded Theory
• Academy of Management Journal reviewers notes
about Grounded Theory

11. What is Grounded
Theory?
• Grounded Theory Approach
• Grounded Theory Methodology
• Grounded Theory Method

12. Grounded Theory
Process (Analysis)

13. Data Collection
Methods
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Literature Review
Interviews
Document Analysis (Quantitative & Qualitative Data)
Website data
Videos
E-mails/letters
Observation
Participatory Observation

14. Coding Methods
• Initial Coding
• Focused Coding
• Axial Coding

15. Open / Initial coding
• Basically, you read through your data several times
and then start to create tentative labels for chunks of
data that summarize what you see happening (not
based on existing theory – just based on the meaning
that emerges from the data).
• Construct short codes
• Remain Open
• Compare data with data
• Move quickly through data

16. Focused Coding
• The second phase of coding
• Codes are more selective, directed, and conceptual
• It requires decisions about which initial codes make
the most analytic sense to categorize your data
incisively and completely

17. Axial Coding
• Axial coding consists of identifying relationships
among the open codes.
• What are the connections among the codes? This will
be easier to understand when you see the last chart
of this blog post.

18. Grounded Theory in my
research
• First Iteration
• Second Iteration
• Third Iteration

19. First Iteration
Activity
Opening
Question
Content
Research Why do some organisations outperform others in achieving
different levels of ERP benefits?
Initial data collection
open ended interviews and documents analysis
Initial coding and memos ERP Benefits (e.g. inventory benefits, HR benefits, purchasing
are used to develop benefits, accounting benefits, marketing benefits), environmental
tentative categories
problems (e.g. implementation problems, organizational problems,
political problems) and ERP asset problems (integration problems,
data migration problems, on-promise specific ERP problems, and
Cloud ERP specific problems)
Research Question is “How can ERP assets are orchestrated with organizational ERP
enhanced and refined
capabilities to realize maximum benefits of ERP systems?”

20. Second Iteration
Activity
Content
Data
collection
to
enhance coding to solve
the research question
Advanced memos are
used
to
refine
conceptual categories
Semi-structure interviews to investigate research
question and constantly compare with the initial
interviews
ERP Benefits (IT infrastructure, Automating, Planning,
and Business Innovation benefits), ERP capabilities (IT
infrastructure capabilities, automating capabilities,
planning
capabilities,
and
Business
Innovation
capabilities), and ERP Assets concepts (Assets underpin
IT infrastructure, Assets underpin Automating benefits,
Assets underpin Planning benefits, and Assets underpin
Business Innovation benefits)

21. Third Iteration
Activity
Content
Theoretical Sampling nine semi-structured interviews
to find out new data
Sorting all memos
together
ERP Asset Orchestration framework is developed
More Interviews
searching for
saturation point
After nine interviews, four consecutive interviews do not add to
the conceptual framework.
Validating all the
results in focus
group
Conceptual Model , ERP asset , Capability and benefit matrix are
presented to focus group of 4 experts to validate the results

22. Research Findings
ERP Assets: ERP Features,
Technologies attached, IT
Department Competence
Benefits
ERP Capabilities depend on
Practices, Organization
characteristics, Psychological
Factors
ERP Automating &
Integrating Assets
Automating
Benefits
ERP Automating
Capability
ERP Planning &
Controlling Assets
+
ERP Business
Innovation Assets
Planning Benefits
Business
Innovation
Benefits
ERP Planning &
Controlling
Capability
+
ERP Business
Innovation
Capability
Organisational Maturity in ERP utilization
=
Business Value

23. Editors Opinion about
GTA
• European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS) –
When do we call it Grounded Theory?
• Academy of Management Journal – Six Common
Misconceptions in Grounded Theory.

24. EJIS – When do we can
call it GTM?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Theory Development
Constant Comparison
Iterative Coding
Theoretical Sampling
Management of Perceptions
Inextricable link between data collection and analysis
Birks et al (2013)

25. 1. Theoretical
Development
• The objective of the study was
• To develop theory rather than to test theory or
• To provide a rich description of a phenomenon
based on a systematic exploration of the
accounts of the phenomenon (through interviews,
observations, archival materials or quantitative
data sources)

26. 2. Constant
Comparison
• Constant comparison should be used to analyse
data from different standpoints.
• It should be noted that analytical and theoretical
memos act as the pivotal point for
comparison, emergence, sampling and theoretical
densification

27. Memos
• Memos are critical, internal sense-making techniques through which
constant comparison is achieved.
• They help researchers understand their data, the relations in their
data and the gaps in their data.
• Memos are therefore transitional analysis steps that do not require
disclosure, but without which grounded theory is not possible
(Glaser, 1978).
• Memos can take the form of diagrams, text arratives, propositions,
mind maps and other techniques that are suitable to both the idea
being documented and to the cognitive preferences of the researcher
as sense maker

28. 3. Iterative Coding
• Constant comparison led to theory developed through several
iterations of data coding.
• In this process, concepts are defined, their dimensions developed and
abstracted out.
• The concepts are then interrelated to each other and, potentially, to
the extant literature.
• This coding is not required at the word or even at the paragraph level.
Instead, the granularity of the code is defined by research interest,
the nature of the data and the researcher’s philosophical stance.

29. 4. Theoretical Sampling
• The data were collected based on theoretical sampling, with collection
ceasing when the data reach theoretical saturation.
• Theoretical sampling does not aim to identify representative
populations, but rather to enrich the emerging concept.
• In other words, the driver for sampling is the need to understand the
nature and dimensions of emerging conceptualisations further, usually
by sampling data in a way that varies a particular set of dimensions
that emerge from prior data analysis.
• Theoretical sampling also helps reduce sampling bias and insufficient
variation in data, while maintaining focus on the researcher’s goals
• Similarly, the notion of theoretical saturation guides the researcher to
stay in the field and continue collecting data until new theoretical
constructs cease arising and it becomes possible for the researcher
to predict what the analysis of the next data point is likely to say.

30. 5. Management of
Preconceptions
• The study was not driven by existing theories.
• This is not to say that the researcher’s own convictions, based on
their research paradigm, cannot guide their judgements – this is
impossible to avoid.
• Instead, GTM requires that we avoid using specific theories pertaining
to the phenomenon under study as the starting point for data
collection and analysis.

31. Management of
Preconception
• However, a priori theories and other preconceptions regarding the
research domain should be dealt with in accordance with the method.
• Specifically, a priori theory of the phenomenon should be treated as
a kind of data to be compared against evidence from the substantive
field of enquiry, and not as a way of interpreting the data.
• In validating emergent theory, extant theoretical lenses may (and
perhaps should) be used to explain how the emergent theory is
related to the greater body of literature

32. 6. Inextricable link between data
collection and analysis
• The data collection and analysis activities were
intrinsically related; done almost at the same time, in
a recursive process, in which data analysis alternated
with data collection until saturation was reached.
• (New data yields no new insights for the researcher/s
involved).

33. 6 Common
Misconceptions in
Grounded Theory
• Grounded Theory is not
• an Excuse to Ignore the Literature
• Presentation of Raw Data
• Theory Testing, Content Analysis, or Word Counts
• Simply Routine Application of Formulaic Technique to Data
• Is Not Perfect
• Not an Excuse for the Absence of a Methodology
Suddan et al (2006)