1. VALIDITY & RELIABILITY

2. VALIDITY
Validity refers to the degree of
appropriateness, correctness, truthfulness
and accuracy of the study. In other words,
the procedure shall measure what is
intended to measure.

3. Types of Validity
• Content Validity - pertains to the degree
to which the instrument fully assesses or
measures the construct of interest. For
example, an educational test with strong
content validity will represent the subjects
actually taught to students, rather than
asking unrelated questions.

4. • Face Validity - is a component of content
validity and is established when an
individual reviewing the instrument
concludes that it measures the
characteristic or trait of interest. It requires
a personal judgment, such as asking
participants whether they thought that a
test was well constructed and useful.

5. • Criterion Validity - assesses whether a
test reflects a certain set of abilities. To
measure the criterion validity of a test,
researchers must calibrate it against a
known standard or against itself.
Example:
One famous example is when Coca-Cola
decided to change the flavor of their
trademark drink.

6. RELIABILITY
The degree of consistency between two
measures of the same thing.
The measure of how stable, dependable,
trustworthy, and consistent a test is in
measuring the same thing each time
Reliability is the extent to which an
experiment, test, or any measuring
procedure yields the same result on
repeated trials.

7. 4 TYPES OF RELIABILITY
1. Equivalency Reliability - is the extent to
which two items measure identical
concepts at an identical level of difficulty.
 Also called alternate forms reliability, this
type of reliability is used when there is an
equivalent test (or another form of the
same test) available. Both tests are
administered and a correlation between
the two is calculated.

8. 2. Stability Reliability - sometimes called
test, re-test reliability) is the agreement of
measuring instruments over time.
this method requires two administrations of
the same test, separated by some time
delay (a few days to a few weeks). The
scores between the two tests are then
correlated.

9. 3. Internal consistency is the extent to
which tests or procedures assess the
same characteristic, skill or quality.
Measures how well one part of a single test
correlates to another part of the same test.

10. • For example, a researcher designs a
questionnaire to find out about college
students' dissatisfaction with a particular
textbook. Analyzing the internal
consistency of the survey items dealing
with dissatisfaction will reveal the extent to
which items on the questionnaire focus on
the notion of dissatisfaction.

11. 4.Interrater reliability is the extent to which
two or more individuals agree. Interrater
reliability addresses the consistency of the
implementation of a rating system

12. Statistical Treatment of Data

13. Basic Statistics
1. MEAN - The average of a set of n data x
M = ∑x
n

14. Standard Deviation
Deviation just means how far from the
normal.
• Its symbol is σ (the greek letter sigma)
The formula is easy: it is the square root of
the Variance. So now you ask, "What is
the Variance?"

15. What is a Variance?
• The average of the squared differences
from the Mean.

16. You and your friends have just measured the heights of
your dogs (in millimeters):
The heights (at the shoulders) are: 600mm, 470mm, 170mm, 430mm
and 300mm.
Find out the Mean, the Variance, and the Standard Deviation.

17. • Step 1: Mean = 600 + 470 + 170 + 430 + 300 = 1970 = 394
5 5
so the mean (average) height is 394 mm.

18. Step 2: o calculate the Variance, take each difference,
square it, and then average the result:

20. Standard Deviation: square root of variance
21,704
= 147.32... = 147 (to the nearest mm)

21. And the good thing about the Standard Deviation is that it is useful. Now we
can show which heights are within one Standard Deviation (147mm) of the
Mean:
So, using the Standard Deviation we have a "standard" way of knowing what
is normal, and what is extra large or extra small.
Rottweilers are tall dogs. And Dachshunds are a bit short ..

22. Let’s try:
Compute the Standard Deviation of the survey conducted
by the 4th yr. researchers on the level of customer
satisfaction of a ABC Restaurant:
Out 30 respondents, this is what they gathered:
Not satisfied = 4
Moderately satisfied = 7
Satisfied = 9
Very Satisfied = 6
Extremely Satisfied = 4

23. Mean = 6
Variance = (-2)2 + (1)2 + (3)2 + (0)2 + (-2)2
=4+1+9+0+4
= 18
Standard Deviation = 18 = 9
Majority of the respondents are “satisfied” in the customer
service of ABC Restaurant.

24. Summary, Conclusion and
RECOMMENDATION

25. Results of Summary
You should keep this section brief and
identify the result with a general statement
paragraph which it then followed by
another paragraph that supports the
evidence collected. You should avoid
interpretation here and thus be objective
about the results.

26. Discussion of Results
You should discuss the meaning of the
results here, in brief, and highlight any
important areas that you have identified.
You should also look at the different things
that the study means and how this is
evaluated to the overall understanding in
your thesis.

27. Recommendations
• These could be to your employer or to the
academic community. You will want to
keep this section brief and maybe to one
paragraph or two, and explain what, from
the research that has been conducted,
there will be recommendations to the
organizations or, if you are presenting to
academia, then what further research
should be conducted in the future

28. BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
CURRICULUM VITAE

29. Bibliography
APA Style
• References. Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last
name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other
punctuation.) Only the initials of the first and middle names are
given. If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title,
ignoring any A, An, or The.
Example:
• Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington,
D.C.: National Geographic Society.
• Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the
imagination. New York: Random House.
• Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A
practical guide for creating tables. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

30. • For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of
your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of works
cited, except for May, June, and July.
Example : (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style (July
22, 1999)

31. Underlining or Italics?
Typewriter : Publications were underlined
(typewriters have no italics)
Hand : Name of publication were underlined
Computer : Publications should be written in
italics

32. Hanging Indentation
All APA citations should use hanging indents,
that is, the first line of an entry should be flush
left, and the second and subsequent lines
should be indented 1/2".

33. Capitalization, Abbreviation,
and Punctuation
• Capitalize only the first word of a title and subtitle. The exceptions to
this rule would be periodical titles and proper names in a title which
should still be capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and
is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also
italicized.
• If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the
name of the last author. If there are more than six authors, list only
the first one and use et al. for the rest.
• Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the
name of the author. Place a period after the closing parenthesis. Do
not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter
works within longer works

34. FORMAT EXAMPLE:
Books :
Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title.
Additional information. City of publication: Publishing
company.
Example:
Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America.
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.
Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of
the imagination. New York: Random House

35. ENCYCLOPEDIA & DICTIONARY:
Format:
Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article.
Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of
publication: Publishing company.
Example:
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new
encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago:
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993).
Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

36. Magazine & Newspaper Articles
Format:
Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article
title. Periodical title, volume number(issue number if
available), inclusive pages.
Example:
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology
journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological
Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's
schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

37. Website or Webpage
Format:
Online periodical:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of
Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full
URLOnline document:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month
day, year, from full URL
Ex.
Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The
Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from
http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html

38. References
Battery. (1990). Encyclopedia britannica. (pp. 100-101). Chicago:
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Best batteries. (December 1994). Consumer Reports Magazine, 32, 71-72.
Booth, Steven A. (January 1999). High-Drain Alkaline AA-Batteries. Popular
Electronics, 62, 58.
Brain, Marshall. How batteries work. howstuffworks. Retrieved August 1,
2006, from http://home.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm
Cells and batteries. (1993). The DK science encyclopedia. New York: DK
Publishing.
Dell, R. M., and D. A. J. Rand. (2001). Understanding batteries. Cambridge,
UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Learning center. Energizer. Eveready Battery Company, Inc. Retrieved
August 1, 2006, from http://www.energizer.com/learning/default.asp
Learning centre. Duracell. The Gillette Company. Retrieved July 31, 2006,
from http://www.duracell.com/au/main/pages/learning-centre-what-is-a-
battery.asp