1Introduction to Child Development Charlie Edwards/Photodisc/Getty Images Learning Objectives After completing this module, you should be able to: ሁ Identify and distinguish between developmental domains. ሁ Define and describe the five periods of child and adolescent development. ሁ Trace the historical changes in the field of child development. ሁ Identify and describe major developmental theories. ሁ Differentiate among psychological theories of development and summarize major views. Prologue Prologue About the time I started teaching child development, I was also a consultant at The Children’s Corner, a “playcare” facility that my two young children attended. We employed certified child- care professionals and a number of teaching assistants from a local university. Together they cared for dozens of children, from newborn to age 5. At times, more than 100 children drifted in and out of the facility on any particular day. Within a climate that increasingly emphasized the importance of giving children an intellectual head start, our school remained an unstruc- tured, open environment. It was child centered and focused on creativity and socialization. Before leaving for work, I would go to different areas of the school and interact with the chil- dren. Sometimes I would read to them; other times I would assist with art. I played on the climbers and helped in the kitchen. The children were full of energy, curiosity, laughter, and fun. It was a terrific way to start my day. The children from The Children’s Corner have since grown up and undoubtedly have pursued a variety of interests. Most of them are attending college or have begun to work. Some have pursued careers in teaching, medicine, or engineering; others are musicians or artists, labor- ers or technicians; a few are actors. Undoubtedly, some have mental disorders, and, sadly, the odds are good that some of those cute toddlers have been addicted to drugs or have engaged in more maladaptive behaviors, like committing criminal acts. Individual and group factors have steered the children from that facility into widely diver- gent paths. For many of us observers, these differences lead to perhaps the most fascinating question in psychology: What makes us all so distinct? Even children raised in the same envi- ronment often lead lives that are different in so many ways. Siblings are often motivated by different ideals and hold opposing positions on social issues, personal principles, or politics. They have different personalities, physical abilities, and intellectual pursuits. My own children, though raised in similar environments, are both alike and different. My son, Max, was an early talker and used words to learn about the world; during infancy and early childhood, he would talk to everyone. By contrast, my daughter, Mariana, did not say much during her first 2 years. She was content to take in the world silently through her eyes and ears, which many obser ...

1. 1Introduction to Child Development
Charlie Edwards/Photodisc/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Identify and distinguish between developmental domains.
ሁ Define and describe the five periods of child and adolescent
development.
ሁ Trace the historical changes in the field of child
development.
ሁ Identify and describe major developmental theories.
ሁ Differentiate among psychological theories of development
and summarize major views.
Prologue
Prologue
About the time I started teaching child development, I was also
a consultant at The Children’s
Corner, a “playcare” facility that my two young children
attended. We employed certified child-
care professionals and a number of teaching assistants from a
local university. Together they
cared for dozens of children, from newborn to age 5. At times,
more than 100 children drifted
in and out of the facility on any particular day. Within a climate
that increasingly emphasized

2. the importance of giving children an intellectual head start, our
school remained an unstruc-
tured, open environment. It was child centered and focused on
creativity and socialization.
Before leaving for work, I would go to different areas of the
school and interact with the chil-
dren. Sometimes I would read to them; other times I would
assist with art. I played on the
climbers and helped in the kitchen. The children were full of
energy, curiosity, laughter, and
fun. It was a terrific way to start my day.
The children from The Children’s Corner have since grown up
and undoubtedly have pursued
a variety of interests. Most of them are attending college or
have begun to work. Some have
pursued careers in teaching, medicine, or engineering; others
are musicians or artists, labor-
ers or technicians; a few are actors. Undoubtedly, some have
mental disorders, and, sadly, the
odds are good that some of those cute toddlers have been
addicted to drugs or have engaged
in more maladaptive behaviors, like committing criminal acts.
Individual and group factors have steered the children from that
facility into widely diver-
gent paths. For many of us observers, these differences lead to
perhaps the most fascinating
question in psychology: What makes us all so distinct? Even
children raised in the same envi-
ronment often lead lives that are different in so many ways.
Siblings are often motivated by
different ideals and hold opposing positions on social issues,
personal principles, or politics.
They have different personalities, physical abilities, and
intellectual pursuits.

3. My own children, though raised in similar environments, are
both alike and different. My
son, Max, was an early talker and used words to learn about the
world; during infancy and
early childhood, he would talk to everyone. By contrast, my
daughter, Mariana, did not say
much during her first 2 years. She was content to take in the
world silently through her eyes
and ears, which many observers would mistakenly take for
“shyness.” Max remained verbally
inquisitive, in some ways the center of attention, with his
precocious language and knowledge
of facts.
When Max was in second grade, he would come home and
report the day’s exploits like he
was a local newscaster. Two years behind him, Mariana would
just go about her business,
almost in the background, but with a keen sense about her. She
thought nothing of teaching
her fellow kindergartners how to tie their shoes and, at her
teacher’s urging, she also taught
her friends how to read—but we did not hear about it until
months later! Without demanding
attention, she exuded self-confidence.
Like most parents, I can tell numerous stories about my
children’s physical and intellectual
differences. These changes in development are what make each
human unique and the study
of child and adolescent development so fascinating. Studying
this period of development also
allows us to understand the processes of change and, through
such study, to find ways to
improve children’s lives. Like my two children, and the children

4. in the playcare facility, we all
end up different. This text will attempt to explain why.
Section 1.2Domains of Development
1.1 The Study of Child Development
As your own childhood and adolescence have given way to
adulthood, you now have the
opportunity to gain a different perspective on development. You
have insight that enables
you to reflect on your experiences, and you can use those
experiences to help you understand
how others grow up. You may come across children in your
work, during daily routines, and
almost assuredly in your own family. It is therefore unlikely
that you will leave the lessons and
your knowledge of childhood completely behind.
The study of child development attempts to find explanations
for both the similarities and
the differences in feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that occur in
children between birth and
the end of adolescence. Dramatic changes occur in this period
as children shift from being
completely dependent on others to being responsible,
autonomous adults. The study of child
development also includes genetics and the prenatal (before
birth) period, as these factors
have a strong influence on later development.
As we study childhood development, keep
in mind that there are no universal models
that can accurately forecast how a person
will grow. Child development is a subfield

5. of developmental psychology, which itself
is a separate division of the American Psy-
chological Association (APA). However,
child development is also associated with
the APA divisions of educational psychol-
ogy and health psychology, the Society for
the Psychological Study of Social Issues, and
more. The study of development is clearly
multifaceted. In addition, human develop-
ment in general is multidisciplinary. That
is, we study contributions from academic
disciplines other than psychology and child
development, including health care, public policy, community
outreach, sociology, anthropol-
ogy, social work, education, economics, and more.
1.2 Domains of Development
To make sense of the interdisciplinary nature of development, it
is important to organize the
different kinds of change into broad categories. In this section,
we explore the areas of physi-
cal, cognitive, and psychosocial development, which make up
the three domains of develop-
ment. Development is also commonly organized by age-related
classifications called periods
of development, discussed in the section that follows. Though
development rarely occurs in
perfectly isolated categories, classifying development into
domains and periods makes the
study of child and adolescent development more convenient and
orderly for researchers,
teachers, and students.
Fuse/Thinkstock
ሁ What accounts for differences in child

6. development?
Section 1.2Domains of Development
Physical Development
Much of development occurs due to a natural, biological
unfolding of growth over time. This
inner timetable is exemplified by the study of physical
development, which is determined
largely by genetics. Genes are inherited from parents and to
varying degrees determine char-
acteristics such as height, strength, speed, and coordination.
Physical development includes
the biological changes evident during puberty and is also
concerned with variables related
to health and illness. We understand physical development by
studying similarities and aver-
ages between children, as well as differences like those
exhibited by preterm infants, mal-
nourished children, and anorexic teens.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to changes in thinking, language,
and intelligence. It includes
creative activities and problem-solving abilities. Infants will
turn at the sound of a bark; 2
year olds can say, “Dog bark!”; before they turn 7, children will
understand many of the dif-
ferences between dogs and other animals; and teenagers are able
to form complex attitudes
about society’s care and treatment of dogs.
These examples are indicative of advances
in cognition.

7. Cognitive and physical development inter act
as the brain accounts for at least part of the
variability in disorders like autism, dyslexia
(a reading disability), and attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For instance,
physical activity in play is often a success-
ful part of treatment for ADHD (Abdolla-
hian, Mokhber, Balaghi, & Moharrari, 2013).
And research tells us that more (physical)
movement in general improves long-term
cognitive function in infants (Timmons et
al., 2012).
Psychosocial Development
Cognitive development can also affect areas like self-esteem, as
when children feel good or bad
about themselves because of their innate intelligence, athletic
ability, or socialization skills.
Changes in personality, social interaction, and understanding of
emotion describe psycho-
social development. This type of development includes social
traits like the development of
play and friendships, and personal traits like self-control. For
instance, an infant’s relation-
ship with a caregiver is likely to have a significant influence on
later emotional development,
especially feelings of safety and security. Infants will
emotionally attach to protective parental
figures and gain emotional strength and control. A healthy
emotional relationship also allows
children to explore their physical environment more freely and
to take protected risks. (Con-
versely, think about how an overly cautious or negligent parent
might affect a child’s environ-
ment.) In this way, the social environment that infants

8. experience affects the growing per-
sonality. Reflecting the emphasis that social and emotional
changes lead to the construction
of personality, some developmentalists alternatively refer to
this domain as socioemotional
development.
National Geographic/SuperStock
ሁ How might culture affect a child’s cognitive
development?
Section 1.3Periods of Development
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Provide examples of processes that are indicative of the three
domains of child
development.
1.3 Periods of Development
Each domain of development involves a process of change
throughout childhood, which can
be divided into five periods, or stages. These periods help to
standardize terminology and
research and will sometimes vary. Before the Industrial
Revolution and construction of a pub-
lic school system, childhood was thought of quite differently.
We may have conceptualized
only two or three stages of childhood: prenatal (maybe),
infancy, and childhood. Childhood
ended relatively early, when work took the place of play. So
rather than thinking of the follow-
ing periods of child and adolescent development as absolute,
think of them instead as general

9. ranges that are used as a guide. (See Figure 1.1.)
Figure 1.1: Periods of development
ሁ Periods of development should not be thought of as having
absolute beginnings and endings. With
the exception of the prenatal period, the periods should be
conceptualized as approximate age ranges
with intersecting physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
processes.
Infancy
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Early childhood
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Elementary school
High school
Middle school
Puberty (boys)
Puberty (girls)
Neonate
Preschool
Years

10. Periods in Child Development
The prenatal period is the only period with definitive physical
beginning and ending points;
the other age ranges originate from social constructs and have
become useful groupings. The
prenatal period lasts from the time of conception until birth,
whether the gestational period
(the time during which a fetus develops) is full term or not.
Section 1.3Periods of Development
Infancy begins at birth and continues through age 2. The second
year of infancy is often
referred to as toddlerhood. During infancy, there is tremendous
growth in all developmental
domains. Physically, children begin to move on their own
(“toddle”). Cognitively, children
begin to talk, and there is tremendous growth in language
comprehension. Psychosocially,
children begin to engage in independent activities and self-
soothing behaviors, and they begin
to form meaningful relationships.
Early childhood extends from about age 2 to 5 or 6 and
is commonly referred to as the “preschool” years in
mainstream literature and conversation. Body propor-
tions change and children use more coordinated move-
ments, partly due to rapid changes in neuron (brain)
growth. Cognitively, children show great progress in syn-
tax (the use of words and phrases to form sentences).
They also become a bit more discerning of friendships as they

11. spend great amounts of time
playing. Understanding what different playmates can offer leads
to advances in psychosocial
development.
Middle childhood generally encompasses the elementary school
years, from about age 6 to
11. Physical and cognitive differences among children become
more noticeable. Children are
often acutely aware of the exceptional handball players,
mathematicians, and readers. Formal
education allows children to master basic language and
computational skills. From a psycho-
social perspective, games and play become more rule oriented
as morality becomes more
sophisticated.
Adolescence coincides with the dramatic physical changes that
mark puberty and is thought of
as a transition to adulthood. Depending on how the changes are
measured, puberty begins, on
average, at about age 10 years for girls and at about age 12
years for boys. It marks the change
into an adult body and includes sexual maturation. Significant
changes in cognition, due at
least partly to physical maturation of the brain, begin to surface.
Thought processes become
more abstract as teenagers think about the future in a way that
younger children cannot.
From a psychosocial standpoint, puberty lasts until around the
end of high school. Self-
identity becomes prominent as adolescents look toward the
future and establish goals. Ado-
lescents look to friends for emotional support rather than
strictly shared activities; they

12. also begin romantic relationships. Personal and cultural context
often affects much of the
transition to adulthood. For instance, when adults say that a
child has “grown up fast” due
to circumstances such as war or the death of a parent, the
comment usually alludes to the
psychosocial domain.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Explain how each successive period of development is
differentiated from the previous
one. Name one advancement during each period and identify it
as an example of physical,
cognitive, or psychosocial change.
Critical Thinking
What period of development do you look
forward to studying the most? Why did you
choose that period?
Section 1.4Historical Development
1.4 Historical Development
Before we conceptualize development from a theoretical
perspective, let’s take a look at how
history propelled us toward our contemporary view. Only
recently has childhood been regarded
as an altogether distinct development period. Around 600 years
ago, children in modern soci-
ety were regarded as miniature adults. They were expected to
use proper etiquette and engage
in adult kinds of work beginning at about age 7. This age was
thought to coincide with the
child’s ability to use reason or personal discretion (the “Age of

13. Reason”). This idea came from
canon law of the Catholic Church, which still exists. In the past,
many children were sent away
from home at as early as age 6 years in order to learn a useful
trade (Aries, 1962).
Locke
Many early philosophers suggested that humans were
preordained to have certain characteristics. However, in
the 1600s John Locke adopted an alternative view. He pro-
posed that infants entered the world with a tabula rasa
(“blank slate”). He promoted the idea that humans were
born with a blank mind (like a clean chalkboard) and that
mental development was established entirely by experi-
ence. He thought that people constructed their own expe-
riences without an inherent foundation for learning or
development. In his view, children were molded by adult
approval or disapproval of specific behaviors. Of course,
science has made great strides since the 1600s, and we
now know that humans are also born with a great many
capabilities that we inherit from birth, such as language
and intelligence.
Rousseau
Views contrary to Locke’s soon surfaced. The French phi-
losopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) champi-
oned the perspective that children were born with innate
goodness and a built-in tendency to develop increasingly
complex skills as they aged. Adults only got in the way of
these natural plans, so Rousseau argued that adults should not
dictate learning. Instead, learn-
ing should be child centered, focusing on children’s “own ways
of seeing, thinking, and feel-
ing. Nothing is more foolish than to try and substitute [adult]
ways” (Rousseau, 1762/2009,
p. 119). Rousseau embraced the idea that this innate growth

14. developed within stages, and
matured in its own time.
Darwin
The next century brought Charles Darwin (1809–1882), who
first constructed the theory of
evolution. Darwin’s observations included the discovery that
some species have developed
characteristics that lead them to better rates of survival. Over
many generations, particular
characteristics were passed on to the next generation based on a
process of natural selection.
Species that are best adapted to the environment are naturally
selected to survive and procre-
ate. For example, giraffes need to have long necks to reach the
tall trees on which they feed.
©Bettmann/Corbis
ሁ The 17th-century philosopher
John Locke (1632–1704) believed
humans were born with a blank
slate that could be developed
uniquely.
Section 1.4Historical Development
Shorter giraffes are less likely to survive and reproduce in an
environment that contains few
options to feed. Not only did Darwin document the wide array
of biological variation among
species, but he did so scientifically. That is, Darwin was
arguably the catalyst for the scientific
study of development across all species, including humans. For

15. instance, say we want to know
if there might have been an evolutionary advantage for males
and females to develop different
cognitive strengths. If so, how would that knowledge affect
education and career develop-
ment? If not, then why do we see differences in educational
outcomes among boys and girls?
Hall and Gesell
Darwin’s scientific exploration of development also included
the careful documentation of the
first year of his son’s social, emotional, and language
development. Inspired by Darwin’s scien-
tific approach, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) was the first to
identify child development as a spe-
cific academic field of study. Hall’s influence later led him to
become the first president of the
American Psychological Association and founder of the
American Journal of Psychology. He and
his student, Arnold Gesell (1880–1961), examined how growth
seemed to unfold in a predeter-
mined fashion. Gesell coined the term maturation to describe
this natural course of develop-
ment, which is similar for all children. According to maturation
theory, heredity prescribes an
inner growth timetable for every infant (Gesell, 1928). Through
extensive interviews, question-
naires, and observations, Hall and Gesell developed the
normative approach, which involved
classifying and sequencing age-related averages (norms). As a
result of their work, we now
identify normative milestones in physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial development.
Because of the work on normative behaviors that began with
Hall, parents became increas-

16. ingly interested in what behavior was supposed to look like. The
Gesell Developmental Sched-
ules, first published in 1925, offered a way for parents and
professionals to know what kind of
developmental milestones were expected at any particu-
lar age (Gesell, 1925). Soon thereafter, parents turned to
professionals for help when they suspected the presence
of emotional issues that prevented a normal course of
development. The emerging field of psychiatry joined
the push to discover why we become the way we are and
what happens when development goes awry.
Binet and Simon
Meanwhile, French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and
his colleague Théodore Simon
(1872–1961) were using a normative approach to differentiate
children who were at risk of
falling behind their peers in school. At the request of the Paris
public school system, Binet and
Simon developed the first standardized intelligence test based
on normative age and grade
data. On both sides of the Atlantic, the foundation for the
scientific study of child development
had begun in earnest.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Provide a brief historical summary of the foundations of child
development.
Critical Thinking
How is the normative approach used in
intelligence testing?

17. Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
1.5 Theoretical Foundations
Scientific study in general endeavors to describe, predict, and
explain events. The scientific
study of child development is no different. We want to
scientifically identify the changes that
occur during childhood and then understand how those changes
come about. Ideally, we
want to be able to use the knowledge we gain from scientific
studies and apply it in a way
that will improve the functioning of children. For example, we
might want to know how the
small, incremental changes in language occur that eventually
develop into that which most
of us take for granted—talking. If we can identify what changes
occur and then the processes
behind them, we can more easily design interventions to
improve language development and
identify problems in that area early on.
Before we attempt to predict changes in development, we must
formulate general prin-
ciples on how those changes occur. Without some accepted
principle, or theory, behavior
would simply be recorded without a real explanation for what is
happening. That is, theory
is necessary to guide observations. For example,
developmentalists want to understand how
language development is affected by experience. But, we also
want to learn how language
appears naturally even in the absence of certain kinds of
experiences. What accounts for so
much variation in language ability? We need to have a
theoretical framework through which
to ask this kind of question.

18. By developing a theory that language occurs as a result of
normal brain maturation, we can
study the effects of differing amounts of exposure to words on
language development. If chil-
dren learn language regardless of whether they are exposed to
many or few words, there
must be some biological mechanism that forces language to
emerge. So constructing a theory
allows scientists to test different processes that might affect the
path of development. Next,
theories are tested, which is the focus of Module 2. Finally,
conclusions can be used to design
intervention strategies in homes and schools.
It is apparent then that an introduction to development must
include an overview of accepted
theories. Keep in mind that theories are often modified, with
time and research. For instance,
psychologists no longer consider homosexuality an abnormal
developmental disorder, but
the official change occurred only in 1974 (Spitzer, 1981).
Similarly, over time, studies will
both solidify old theories and generate new ones. As you will
learn, some psychological theo-
rists modified older ideas generated by Sigmund Freud and his
followers, while other theo-
rists completely abandoned these older ideas in favor of
contemporary viewpoints that were
decidedly more scientific (e.g., Bandura, 1977).
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was the most well-known figure in
the modern study of mental
health. According to his psychoanalytic perspective, we are
born with an instinctual sexual

19. drive that later becomes the source of anxiety and maladaptive
behavior. According to Freud,
children progress through five stages of psychosexual
development. Each stage is focused
on a particular body part or function. For instance, the mouth is
the central source of pleasure
for the newborn, so Freud called this initial stage of
development the oral stage. Infants can
be observed putting everything into their mouths; they receive
pleasure through contact with
a nipple or food. In years 2 and 3, children shift their focus of
pleasure from the mouth to
the anus. They learn to postpone immediate gratification by
learning to use the toilet. Freud
called this the anal stage.
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
During the phallic (resembling a penis) stage from about 3 to 6
years, children’s gratification
is centered on discovering their bodies. Freud would say that
“playing doctor” and undressing
with other children would satisfy the developmental imperative
to understand the genital
differences between boys and girls. During the latency (hidden)
stage from about age 6 to 12,
children repress their sexual urges. Instinctual sexual drives are
transformed into energy for
school, friendships, and favorite activities. Freud’s fourth and
last stage, the genital stage,
lasts from puberty into adulthood. Here, sexual curiosity
becomes more adult-like. Instead of
being motivated strictly by instinctual drives, the mature
adolescent becomes thoughtful.

20. This cognitive intervention delays personal, solitary
gratification in order to pursue meaning-
ful sexual relationships.
When gratification is denied or frustration ensues at any of the
stages, anxiety results.
Inadequate opportunities most often cause a fixation, or
preoccupation with a particu-
lar psychosexual element. For example,
according to Freud, babies who receive
inadequate warmth and closeness due to
the lack of breastfeeding might develop
an oral fixation. He said that maladjust-
ment would be displayed as a preoccupa-
tion with cigarettes, eating, oral sex, or
other activities that focus on the mouth.
A fixation at the anal stage would result
in obsessive orderliness and attention to
detail, or hoarding behavior (the retention
of objects, like the controlling of bowels).
In contrast, children develop into well-
adjusted adults with mature sexual behav-
ior when parents find an appropriate bal-
ance between delivering too little and too
much gratification.
Personality Structure
Based on his patient’s reports, Freud came to believe that
personality developed around three
essential components: the id, the ego, and the superego. He
theorized that infants are gov-
erned by basic unconscious instincts of pleasure and their
energy is directed to primitive,
biological desires. Freud viewed infants as basically selfish
creatures who are interested only

21. in reducing tension that builds up when their selfish needs are
not met. Freud called this
pleasure-seeking part of the personality the id, which is
completely unconscious. Accord-
ing to Freud, although the id dominates an infant’s life, humans
spend their lives trying to
overcome the aggressive and sexual impulses of the id. Freud
might describe politicians who
subject themselves to private and public scrutiny by admitting
to moral or ethical violations
as “mostly id.” When we engage in pleasure-seeking behaviors
without regard to the conse-
quences, it is the unconscious id that is seeking immediate
gratification.
In Freud’s view, conscious awareness begins to develop in the
second and third years. It
becomes the job of the ego to satisfy the demands of the id and
to have realistic plans for
obtaining what the id wants. The ego is rational as it tries to
rein in the instincts of the id. It
therefore operates on the reality principle as it tries to balance
instinctual needs with soci-
etal expectations. For instance, instead of forcefully taking a
toy that another child is using, a
©CORBIS
ሁ Sigmund Freud believed that personality
developed largely as a result of unconscious
processes.
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations

22. 3 year old might learn to ask an adult if there are any more toys.
This behavior would be the
result of the reality principle of the ego.
As the child’s personality matures between the ages of 3 and 6,
he or she develops a sense
of morality, which Freud called the superego. The superego
makes distinctions between
right and wrong according to parental and societal standards.
When decisions are made, the
ego has the difficult task of balancing the demands of the id
while maintaining rules that the
superego dictates. A 6 year old must balance the demands of
wanting a cookie now (id) to
satisfy a hunger urge, with the admonishment not to eat sweets
before dinner (superego). It
is up to the ego to find a compromise—perhaps asking for a
piece of fruit instead.
Freud’s theories were quite comprehensive and went well
beyond the connection to devel-
opment that is discussed here. Many of the terms he used, like
anal, ego, and denial have
broadened the study of development and have had a great
impact on popular psychology. His
theories cannot be dismissed from a historical viewpoint, but
many psychologists feel that
psychosexual stage theory is not particularly relevant as a
contemporary model. Importantly,
even though Freud stressed the significance of early mother-
child relationships, he did not
study these relationships directly.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Summarize Freud’s view of development and how the
personality develops.

23. Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a neo-Freudian who argued that
Freud misjudged the impor-
tance of an individual’s interaction with society and the
motivation for humans to be immersed
in social customs. Rather than focusing on psychosexual urges
as Freud did, Erikson empha-
sized the process of psychosocial development. He believed
humans are both formed and
challenged by the environment. Psychosocial development is
embedded within social tasks
that occur over a lifelong process of eight stages. This lifelong
social component is in contrast
to Freud’s theory, according to which the personality was
formed during the first five years
of life.
Erikson’s theoretical goal was not to “complete” stages but
instead was to address specific
crises in order to deal with the conflict of the next stage. A
crisis develops when psychologi-
cal needs and societal pressures intersect. For instance, a fourth
grader has a need to achieve
but may have a teacher who puts unreasonable demands on
performance. Perhaps the child
has a learning disability or is simply asked to complete work
that is too difficult. According to
Erikson, a crisis would develop between the demands of the
person and the demands of the
social environment.
Cultures vary in their demands on children, so crises may occur
differently depending on the
context. For instance, some cultures, like mainstream culture in
the United States, empha-

24. size independence and autonomy and children are usually
rewarded for individual effort and
competitiveness (Triandis, 1995). Conversely, a child who
grows up in Japan is more likely to
have a collectivist orientation, in which group cooperation and
interpersonal relations are
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
valued over individual accomplishments. Because of these and
other differences in cultures, a
crisis of development in one culture may not look the same in
another.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
How does Erikson’s view of development stray from early
psychoanalytic views?
Learning Theory
Psychologists began to question the efficacy of studying
unconscious processes that are dif-
ficult to identify and measure. As scientists, psychologists knew
that theories should be test-
able and that it was impossible to measure variables like the id,
ego, and superego. Hence
learning theory arose. It focused only on thoughts, feelings, and
actions that could be quanti-
fied (expressly measured). In this view, learning and
development could be studied scientifi-
cally by observing behaviors that originate from mental events.
Early learning theory is often
referred to as behaviorism, as its study focused on identifiable
behaviors that were learned
through reinforcement or avoided through punishment.

25. Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
The behaviorist movement was kick-started in 1901 as Ivan
Pavlov (1849–1936) was sum-
marizing his research on conditioning reflexes. Pavlov knew
that dogs salivated naturally
when presented with food. While studying the salivary response
of his laboratory dogs, he
observed them salivating to various objects and condi-
tions that were associated with food, but where food
was not yet presented. In the same way that a dog or cat
might respond to the shaking of a bag of kibble, Pavlov
found that dogs could learn to salivate to the sound of a
bell, a white lab coat, or a tuning fork (Pavlov, 1927).
This kind of learning through association is called classical
conditioning. In this type of
learning, a neutral stimulus (where there is no particular
response) is paired with a stimulus
that elicits an involuntary (natural) response. For instance, a lab
coat would not ordinarily
bring any response—it is a neutral stimulus; food elicits an
involuntary salivary response.
When the lab coat is paired with the food repeatedly and
learning is complete, the lab coat is
no longer neutral. The dog has learned to associate the lab coat
with food, even when no food
is present. The former neutral stimulus (lab coat) now elicits the
response (salivation) even
in the absence of the original stimulus (food). The new
stimulus-response relationship is not
involuntary, it is learned. Pavlov called the learned response
(lab coat → salivation) a condi-
tioned response. The coat is the conditioned stimulus and the
salivation is the conditioned

26. response.
John Watson and Classical Conditioning
A major advancement in learning theory occurred when John
Watson (1878–1958) demon-
strated dramatically that classical conditioning occurred in
humans as well as animals. He
Critical Thinking
Explain how a child’s fear of dogs can be
classically conditioned.
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
famously conditioned a child, 9-month-old Little Albert, to be
afraid of rats and other furry
objects. First, Watson demonstrated that Little Albert was
unafraid of rats and other animals.
He then paired a loud noise with a rat by banging on a heavy
metal bar behind Albert’s head
whenever the rat made an appearance. Not surprisingly, Albert
began to associate the rat
with discomfort and fear. He soon became upset whenever a rat
was presented, even in the
absence of the noise. Note, however, that research of the type
undertaken with Little Albert
goes against the code of ethical principles of the American
Psychological Association (as well
as common sense) and thus would never be pursued today.
B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Though Watson can be thought of as the grandfather of
behaviorism, B. F. Skinner (1904–
1990) was its greatest proponent. He demonstrated another type

27. of conditioning that went
beyond the involuntary responses associated with classical
conditioning (Skinner, 1938).
According to Skinner, whenever a behavior is reinforced it is
likely to be repeated; whenever
a behavior is not reinforced (or ignored) it is likely to die out.
If children are reinforced with
a treat whenever they whine, they are more likely to whine;
when students click on hyper-
links and are rewarded with more knowledge or better
understanding, they are more likely
to repeat those behaviors as well.
In the case of language development, for instance, behaviorists
have found that the speech
of toddlers progresses more rapidly when parents show approval
for talking, even among
children at risk for delays due to their premature birth (Pelaez,
Virues-Ortega, & Gewirtz,
2011; Tamis-LeMonda, Bornstein, & Baumwell, 2001). They are
also reinforced for following
specific grammatical rules, and later learn appropriate syntax
and manners (Skinner, 1957).
We know that children learn by responding to others, as when a
parent says, “Look at the but-
terfly!” and the child’s response is reinforced with applause,
smiles, hugs, or the like.
By contrast, if a child’s behavior is repeatedly not reinforced
(e.g., not being chosen for a team
on the playground), the child is likely to cease the behavior
(i.e., no longer making himself or
herself available to play). Similarly, if a classmate continually
turns down requests to play
after school, “asking behaviors” are likely to stop. In this way,
behaviors that are not rein-

28. forced die out. We can define reinforcement as any consequence
that increases the likeli-
hood of a behavior’s reoccurrence.
Whereas reinforcement increases the likelihood that a
behavior will reoccur, punishment decreases its likeli-
hood. The child who is laughed at whenever he or she
gives an incorrect response to a question is punished
and is less likely to repeat that behavior. If people get
sick after eating a particular food, they are less likely to
repeat that specific eating behavior. Children who are
admonished for playing too rough or breaking curfew
will look to avoid those behaviors.
Skinner therefore emphasized that development is shaped as a
result of learning through
patterns of rewards and punishments. He called this type of
learning operant conditioning,
since people (and other organisms) learn behaviors by operating
in the environment. Under-
standing this type of conditioning is an essential part of
understanding the developing child.
Critical Thinking
Identify three behaviors that you have
repeated in your life because you were
reinforced.
http://www.who.int/en/
http://www.who.int/en/
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
Skinner first demonstrated operant conditioning by training
small animals like rats and

29. pigeons. He would reward them as they got closer and closer to
a targeted behavior. In one of
his classic demonstrations, a rat is rewarded with a food pellet
when it first approaches a
lever; then it must sniff the lever to receive food. Later it
must touch the lever to be rewarded. By day 7 or so, it
must pull on the lever to receive a pellet of reinforce-
ment. Skinner called this gradual process of modifying
behavior shaping. Each step closer to the goal is a suc-
cessive approximation toward the final goal. When shap-
ing behavior in a school or clinical setting, a number of
specific goals are usually identified for reinforcement
(“baby steps”) before the final target is reached. In a
more general way, parents and others gradually shape
social behaviors of children by reinforcing specific kinds
of etiquette, hygiene, and speech.
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : B e h a v i o r i s m A p p l
i e d
When compared to psychoanalytic methods pioneered by
Freudian theory, behavior-
ism can be applied in a much more systematic fashion.
Therapists do not always need to
uncover unconscious conf licts in order to treat unwanted
behavior. The treatment of spe-
cific behavior issues, like phobias, provides one example.
When I was a practicing psychotherapist, I specialized in the
problems of children. One day
I received a call from the parents of 10-year-old “Billy,”
explaining that he had lost part of
his face after being bitten by a dog. Billy had received multiple
stitches and was left with
massive scars. What took a number of pairings to achieve in
Little Albert was achieved in

30. one brief, brutal attack against Billy. He was so traumatized
that this previously animal-
loving boy had mixed feelings about even keeping his own
quietly gentle dog. Intellectually
Billy knew that he loved his dog and wanted to keep her, but he
was so terrified from his
experience of being bitten by a strange dog that he was
uncomfortable even looking at his
dog from the other side of a glass patio door. In the same way
that Little Albert generalized
his fear from rats to other furry creatures, Billy had generalized
his fear to all dogs. He
and his parents asked me to alleviate his fear so that he could
once again interact with his
own dog.
In these types of cases, therapists often use behavioral
principles to eliminate the
response. I worked with Billy to replace his fear response with
relaxation, since it is
physiologically impossible to be simultaneously fearful and
relaxed. During 6 months of
treatment, I used a combination of distraction, hypnosis, and
relaxation techniques while
exposing Billy to progressively more fearful situations. Each
exposure level was planned
systematically to eliminate Billy’s fear response. At first, Billy
was afraid to look at photos
of gentle dogs. After he was able to tolerate those photos, I
gradually exposed him to pho-
tos of dogs that appeared angry. When I first met Billy, he
would not look out the window
of the car for fear he would see a dog. A couple of months later,
Billy was able to comfort-
ably watch his dog from the other side of the glass door and
could drive past the dog park

31. without cowering.
(continued)
Critical Thinking
Children often play games in which they
look for a hidden item and the person who
hid the item responds to the seeker’s behav-
iors by using words related to temperature
(e.g., “warmer, warmer, hot, hotter, burn-
ing!”). What behavioral concept is applied in
these situations?
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
We then worked on exposure to live dogs. I eventually brought
in my own family dogs
because I knew they would remain calm in a corner of the office
if necessary. Billy actu-
ally began to interact with my dogs before allowing his own dog
into the house, probably
because he associated my office with a deeper level of
relaxation than his home. However,
not long after that, he was able to take his dog for a walk and
then move her back into the
house. After another month or so, he was functioning nearly as
he did before the attack.
Shaping occurs constantly. Behaviors as simple as looking for a
toilet in an unfamiliar envi-
ronment or attempting to find a particular classroom involve
shaping. Even asking for direc-
tions becomes reinforcing because it gets you closer to your

32. ultimate goal. The second time
you go to the same location, there may be some delay in getting
there, but your response time
is usually faster. By the third or fourth time, you reach the
target location (the ultimate rein-
forcement) without hesitation.
Albert Bandura and Social-Cognitive Theory
Although Skinner clearly demonstrated how responses change,
pure behaviorism does not
explain all learning. Albert Bandura (1925– ) showed that
behaviors emerge even without
reinforcement or punishment. Bandura famously demonstrated
that the social environment
and cognition play interactive roles in behavior. This model for
learning is now called social-
cognitive theory. In his classic study using children who
watched adult models punch a
Bobo doll, Bandura demonstrated that humans could learn
simply by observation. That is,
he showed that reinforcement was not always a factor in
eliciting behavior. Instead, we know
that children also learn by modeling (or imitating) the behavior
of others. Imitation partly
explains how babies learn to smile, children learn to do
“cannonballs” in a pool, or adults
learn to behave in a new environment without being reinforced.
The four steps in social-cognitive learning demonstrate the
interaction of operant principles
and cognition (Bandura, 1986):
1. Attention: The individual must first pay attention to
something in the environment.
The event’s most critical features receive the most attention.

33. 2. Retention: The individual must successfully translate the
event into a concept that
can be remembered.
3. Reproduction: The individual needs to be able to convert the
remembered concept
into appropriate behavior.
4. Motivation: The individual must be sufficiently motivated
through reinforcement or
punishment to engage in the behavior. The environment initiates
the consequence
that ultimately causes the behavior to be repeated or not.
Critical Thinking
Watch or read a “how to” activity online
to identify each of Bandura’s four steps in
social-cognitive learning.
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
Bandura’s approach to learning has many
practical applications. Like other psycholog-
ical learning models, though, it falls short in
trying to explain all behavioral outcomes.
For example, although observational learn-
ing can explain why the vast majority of abu-
sive parents report that they were abused as
children (Garbarino, 1984), the reverse is
not true: Many children make a conscious
decision to behave differently from their
parents. In fact, over 70% of children who
are abused do not grow up to abuse their
own children (Cicchetti & Toth, 2006).

34. Researchers and theorists explain the differ-
ent outcomes by the strength of the cogni-
tive side of learning. In the social-cognitive
perspective, the environment is regarded as
a mechanism for feedback. An abused child can use that
feedback (through observation) and
consciously (with thought) make decisions without necessarily
modeling the behavior.
Therefore, when people think about a problem that needs
to be solved, it is a separate extension of behavioral pro-
cesses; action is guided by thinking—in addition to rein-
forcement and punishment. The social-cognitive model
explains how you might observe an online video and
pursue an idea for engaging in a similar type of activity,
like the second time a group of individuals thought about
performing the Harlem Shake (see Web Resources).
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
What major changes in scientific thinking occurred when
learning theory became more
prominent?
Cognitive Perspective: Piaget and Information Processing
Contemporary cognitive theory is also associated with learning.
For instance, when a child
thinks about a recent allergic reaction to papaya and thus avoids
eating it, then there is a cog-
nitive assessment that influences behavior. It is therefore
apparent that learning perspectives
have evolved from “Pavlov’s dog” to learning models that
include the influence of mental pro-
cesses in concert with the social environment. Although these
perspectives strongly influenced
early psychology research, no one has been more influential in

35. the contemporary field of child
development than Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896–1980). While adminis-
tering Binet’s intelligence test to Parisian schoolchildren, he
became fascinated by children’s
incorrect answers. After many years of observing the mental
limitations of children, including
his own, Piaget came to the conclusion that children of different
ages think differently. Mental
Image Source/SuperStock
ሁ Albert Bandura demonstrated that behavior,
environment, and cognition form reciprocal
relationships.
Critical Thinking
Name some behaviors that you believe you
have learned in the absence of reinforce-
ment and punishment.
Comstock Images/Thinkstock
ሁ What is the best way to promote thinking?
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
Bandura’s approach to learning has many
practical applications. Like other psycholog-
ical learning models, though, it falls short in
trying to explain all behavioral outcomes.
For example, although observational learn-
ing can explain why the vast majority of abu-
sive parents report that they were abused as
children (Garbarino, 1984), the reverse is

36. not true: Many children make a conscious
decision to behave differently from their
parents. In fact, over 70% of children who
are abused do not grow up to abuse their
own children (Cicchetti & Toth, 2006).
Researchers and theorists explain the differ-
ent outcomes by the strength of the cogni-
tive side of learning. In the social-cognitive
perspective, the environment is regarded as
a mechanism for feedback. An abused child can use that
feedback (through observation) and
consciously (with thought) make decisions without necessarily
modeling the behavior.
Therefore, when people think about a problem that needs
to be solved, it is a separate extension of behavioral pro-
cesses; action is guided by thinking—in addition to rein-
forcement and punishment. The social-cognitive model
explains how you might observe an online video and
pursue an idea for engaging in a similar type of activity,
like the second time a group of individuals thought about
performing the Harlem Shake (see Web Resources).
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
What major changes in scientific thinking occurred when
learning theory became more
prominent?
Cognitive Perspective: Piaget and Information Processing
Contemporary cognitive theory is also associated with learning.
For instance, when a child
thinks about a recent allergic reaction to papaya and thus avoids
eating it, then there is a cog-
nitive assessment that influences behavior. It is therefore
apparent that learning perspectives

37. have evolved from “Pavlov’s dog” to learning models that
include the influence of mental pro-
cesses in concert with the social environment. Although these
perspectives strongly influenced
early psychology research, no one has been more influential in
the contemporary field of child
development than Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896–1980). While adminis-
tering Binet’s intelligence test to Parisian schoolchildren, he
became fascinated by children’s
incorrect answers. After many years of observing the mental
limitations of children, including
his own, Piaget came to the conclusion that children of different
ages think differently. Mental
Image Source/SuperStock
ሁ Albert Bandura demonstrated that behavior,
environment, and cognition form reciprocal
relationships.
Critical Thinking
Name some behaviors that you believe you
have learned in the absence of reinforce-
ment and punishment.
Comstock Images/Thinkstock
ሁ What is the best way to promote thinking?
activity evolves in a predictable pattern of
distinct stages related to natural maturation
of the brain (Piaget, 1983).
Many contemporary cognitive psycholo-
gists have also been influenced by the com-
puter age and more detailed knowledge of

38. the brain. Supporters of the information-
processing theory of cognition compare
thinking to computer systems in the way that
both humans and electronic devices take
in, store, and use information. This theory
focuses on how information flows through
the system, especially with regard to mem-
ory. Thinking can be mapped like a flowchart
to understand how we solve problems. Chil-
dren become better processors of information (more advanced
cognitively) as they gather more
knowledge, encode it in memory, compare it with other
memories, and finally make an appro-
priate response. These cognitive theories are examined more
extensively in Modules 7 and 8.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
How do Piaget and the information-processing theory
conceptualize learning?
Contextual Perspective
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was another influential theorist
whose ideas included a strong
cognitive component. Rather than focusing on what children
know, Vygotsky focused on
what they are capable of knowing. In other words, if Vygotsky
administered an intelligence
test, instead of asking children to perform tasks and answer
questions (as in typical tests),
Vygotsky would demonstrate how to perform a task and then
observe whether or not the
child could repeat the process.
To Vygotsky, the context in which learning takes place is key to
development; hence, his
theory is often referred to as a contextual (or sociocultural)

39. model. A child’s culture and
social group play prominent roles. Culture determines what is
most important to know. For
instance, a child who grows up in an agrarian society in
Bangladesh needs a different kind
of knowledge than the advanced linguistic and reasoning skills
taught in a prep school in
New York City or Tokyo. In addition, regardless of the
community, learning is social. Children
learn by interacting with others and by receiving assistance
when they are learning tasks
that are just outside their current levels of achievement. These
concepts are explored in
more detail in Module 7.
The ecological systems model also emphasizes the importance
of the environment. Ameri-
can psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) identified a
constellation of individual
and contextual variables that operate within a complex structure
of individual and community
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
relationships (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). He theorized that
development was determined by the
relationships among various environmental systems, including
those related to governmental
institutions and policies, schools, health services, social
networks (like churches and recre-
ational sports leagues), and family, friends, and neighbors.
These systems operate simultane-
ously and illustrate how context is key to a child’s development.

40. Figure 1.2 shows how context ranges from a child’s immediate
surroundings to a society’s
laws and values. The microsystem has a daily, direct impact on
the child. Contexts like school,
peers, neighborhood, and religious affiliation make up the
setting in which the child lives. The
mesosystem represents the interaction of the various
components of the microsystem, like
parental involvement in school and a child’s friends. The
exosystem includes community and
socioeconomic variables that have a more indirect impact on the
child. For example, there
are circumstances when parents have to (or choose to) work
more hours, or when there are
fewer resources for childcare and supervision. These conditions
may change a child’s life.
The macrosystem represents the cultural context, such as laws,
traditions, and customs. For
instance, some governmental and cultural institutions have
programs that support the health,
education, and welfare of children. In other nations, simply
being a girl will restrict access to
schooling. Finally, the chronosystem shows the social and
historical context within which the
other systems operate, and how the four systems change over
time. A child’s long-term illness
may affect the microsystem, a new job for Mom might affect
how the mesosystem operates, a
new park across the street can have a profound effect on a
child’s exosystem, and economic
recession or war can have a lasting impact on each of the
systems. For Bronfenbrenner, devel-
opment is a complex interaction of the changing child within a
changing ecological context.
Figure 1.2: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model

41. ሁ Bronfenbrenner’s theory emphasizes individual and
contextual variables that affect development.
September 11 attacks in the U.S.
or the 2011 Tohoku earthquake
and tsunami in Japan may
impact every other system
T
he individ
ua
l
Age
Sex
Health
Mesosystem
Family School
Neighborhood
Health
services
Religious and
group affiliations
Microsystem
Exosystem
Soc

42. ial
we
lfa
re
ser
vic
es
Legal services
Sc
ho
ol
fun
din
g
M
ass media
Neighbors
Macrosystem
S
o
ci

43. e
ta
l b
e
lie
fs
C
ultu
ra
l co
n
text
Atti
tude
s and
ideologies of the culture
Time
Chronosystem
Historical events that
have a comprehensive
effect on the other
systems
Source: Adapted from Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of
Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1979.

44. Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
Critical Thinking
Identify specific events and circumstances
in your life that are representative of each of
Bronfenbrenner’s systems.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Provide examples of contexts that can inf luence developmental
outcomes.
Biological Perspective
Like Bronfenbrenner, developmentalists accept that multiple
forces are involved in develop-
ment. According to biological and evolutionary theories,
development is determined by vary-
ing degrees of interaction among genetics, physiology (the
functions and processes of the
body), and the environment. Furthermore, these theories vary in
the way that development is
viewed as either individual or universal.
Ethology is a subtopic of both zoology and
biology; it refers to the study of animals in
their natural habitats. Ethologists are inter-
ested in biological determinants of behav-
ior. They study why birds nest and why
humans have a propensity for early emo-
tional attachment. Ethologists are inter-
ested in phenomena like imprinting, the
process whereby newborn animals instinc-
tually recognize an organism that will be
protective and aid survival, such as a parent.

45. Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989) famously dis-
covered that goslings could easily imprint
on him. (Most birds will generally imprint
on the first moving object they see, even a
moving toy train.) Lorenz was filmed walk-
ing, swimming, and engaging in activities with goslings that had
imprinted on him at birth.
Behaviors such as these have specific survival value. Emotions
do, too. Fear, joy, and disgust
encourage parents to respond to their children’s needs. Crying
may communicate distress
(perhaps due to hunger), which elicits a response from a parent
that aids survival.
Although evocative behaviors like crying are viewed as
biological, ethologists also view
behavior contextually. That is, biologically determined behavior
is sometimes dependent on
a specific environment. For instance, consider two third graders
who have become so frus-
trated in their attempts at finishing their homework that they are
both crying. Depending on
the patience of the adults involved, the resources that are
available, and the “reasons” for the
©Daniel Lamoreux/Visuals Unlimited/Corbis
ሁ Konrad Lorenz was inspired by his
observations of goose imprinting.
Section 1.5Theoretical Foundations
tears, outcomes may be markedly different. Crying children in
general are responded to dif-

46. ferently depending on the culture (and even subculture) in
which the crying occurs.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
What can ethology and evolutionary theory teach us about
human development?
Dynamic Systems Perspective
Gaining inspiration from behaviors rooted in biology, Esther
Thelen (1941–2004) and her
colleagues embraced a more contemporary dynamic systems
perspective, which attempts
to more fully explain variations in human behavior. Whereas
Gesell, Piaget, and others
described a patterned, maturational plan, dynamic systems
theory views development as
individually self-organizing (Smith & Thelen, 2003; Thelen,
1992). That is, instead of focusing
on linear development, dynamic systems theorists explore how
the interaction of the mind,
body, and social environment customize an integrated, dynamic
(constantly moving) system.
Each behavior is “assembled” from the interaction of multiple
systems (Spencer et al., 2006).
This perspective attempts to understand the
“microdevelopmental” dynamics of the tran-
sition—“how” the moment of change occurred—rather than
focusing on “when” (Thelen &
Corbetta, 2002, p. 55). For instance, we know that, on average,
infants will begin to pull them-
selves to a standing position at around 9 months of age.
According to dynamic systems theory,
the process of pulling oneself to a standing position is not
simply programmed. In addition to
brain maturation, coordination is necessary between muscle

47. movement, perception, motiva-
tion, and mental processes. For each infant, the mix of variables
will prescribe the moment of
transition. Individual exploration, which offers new challenges
and encounters, is what leads
to new levels of organization. How that new organization occurs
is due to “every neural event,
every reach, every smile and every social encounter, [which
then] sets the stage for the next”
(Smith & Thelen, 2003, p. 348).
It is apparent then that dynamic systems theory incorporates
biology and genetics, evolution,
learning, cognition, contextual perspectives, and more. This
perspective illustrates the mod-
ern approach in general, which has shifted the study of
development from simple stimulus-
response relationships indicative of behaviorism, to more
complex systems. In the next mod-
ule, we look at how these different perspectives guide and
organize research, leading to new
understanding and intervention strategies.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Summarize the views held by dynamic systems theory.
Summary and Resources
Wrapping Up and Moving On
You now have the foundation needed to move forward in your
study of child development.
This module began with a discussion of how the study of child
development is organized,
including the identification of its different periods and domains.

48. The historical perspective
established some order in the way in which contemporary theory
has evolved. You should
now have a clear idea of what child development is and the
numerous theories that con-
tribute to its scientific base. In the next module, we describe
how those theories are used in
various forms of research as we attempt to promote deeper
understanding of the issues that
children face.
Summary and Resources
• Child development is the subfield of psychology that studies
the similarities and dif-
ferences among children from birth through the end of
adolescence. For convenience
and organizational purposes, development is often separated
into physical, cogni-
tive, and psychosocial domains.
• The five periods of child development referred to in this text
are standardized for
convenience. Only the prenatal period, which is determined by
biology, is always
fixed. Other chronological age ranges should be thought of as a
guide to develop-
ment, not absolute markers.
• Historical transitions in the study of development include the
evolution from view-
ing children as miniature adults to childhood being a special
period of development.
• To study the science of development, we must begin with an
understanding of vari-

49. ous theories that have influenced the contemporary study of
child development.
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was influential in elevating the
field of psychology, but
he did not directly study childhood development.
• Erikson was a neo-Freudian whose theories still form the basis
for much of psycho-
social development.
• Early psychodynamic theories spawned a wave of behaviorists
that focused on spe-
cific measurable outcomes.
• More modern learning theory acknowledges the importance of
cognitive and social
variables in learning.
• Piaget is the most influential figure in the study of cognitive
development and per-
haps all of cognitive psychology. He constructed the first
comprehensive theory of
how thinking processes emerge, identifying discrete stages.
• The information-processing theory is modeled on the computer
and the way in
which it takes in, stores, and uses information.
• Vygotsky’s model stresses the importance of the context of
learning. His theories
have helped shape how we look at collaborative education.
• Dynamic systems theory addresses the complexity of
development while acknowl-
edging the interaction of biology on momentary actions.

50. Summary and Resources
Key Terms
Albert Bandura Influential psychologist
who is credited with beginning the school
of social learning theory, which was later
expanded to social cognitive theory.
B. F. Skinner A psychologist and behavior-
ist who is credited with expanding the sci-
ence of learning theory.
child development A subfield of develop-
mental psychology that looks at the influ-
ences on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
from conception to the end of adolescence.
chronosystem The social and historical
context in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological sys-
tems model.
classical conditioning Associative learn-
ing that occurs when a neutral stimulus is
paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits a
response.
cognitive development The domain
of development that includes the study
of changes in thinking, language, and
intelligence.
conditioned response A response that has
been learned as a result of pairing with a

51. conditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus A previously neutral
stimulus that becomes associated with an
unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.
domains of development The physical,
cognitive, and psychosocial divisions of
development.
dynamic systems perspective A theory
that explains development by the interac-
tion of the mind, body, and social environ-
ment, which creates an integrated, dynamic
system.
ecological systems model A contextual
approach to development that exam-
ines a number of environmental systems
simultaneously.
ego In psychoanalytic theory, the part of
the personality that operates on the reality
principle and serves as a mediator between
the id and the superego.
Erik Erikson A neo-Freudian who argued
that Freud misjudged the importance of an
individual’s interaction with society and the
motivation for humans to be immersed in
social customs. Emphasized psychosocial
processes in development.
ethology The study of animals (including
humans) in their natural habitats in order to
understand the biological determinants of

52. behavior.
exosystem The community and socioeco-
nomic variables in Bronfenbrenner’s ecologi-
cal systems model.
id According to Freud, the part of the per-
sonality that is concerned only with seeking
pleasure.
imprinting The process in which newborn
animals instinctually recognize and acquire
specific behavioral characteristics of the par-
ent, usually during a critical period.
information-processing theory A theory
that compares human cognitive develop-
ment to a computer in the way that they take
in, store, and use information.
Jean Piaget The father of cognitive theory.
learning theory A psychological approach
that emphasizes the study of thoughts, feel-
ings, and actions that can be observed.
Lev Vygotsky An influential theorist whose
ideas focused on cognition and the signifi-
cance of contextual learning.
macrosystem The cultural context in Bron-
fenbrenner’s ecological systems model.
maturation The programmed unfolding of
biological processes.

53. Summary and Resources
mesosystem The component of Bronfen-
brenner’s ecological systems model that
provides the connection among various
components of a child’s microsystem.
microsystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecologi-
cal systems model, the context that has a
daily impact on the child.
modeling In social learning theory, the
copying of behavior after observation. Also
known as imitation.
multidisciplinary The idea that the study
of development includes disciplines outside
of psychology, such as health care, sociology,
and education.
normative approach The classification and
sequencing of age-related norms for growth
and development.
operant conditioning Learning as a result
of reinforcement and punishment.
physical development The domain of
development that generally refers to matu-
rational growth as determined by genetics.
prenatal period The time period ranging
from conception until birth.

54. psychoanalytic perspective Freud’s theory
that early influences become unconscious
motives that underlie and guide behavior.
psychosexual development A part of the
psychoanalytic perspective that identifies
five specific stages of development. Each
stage corresponds to a specific body part,
each of which is a source of sexual energy.
psychosocial development Erikson’s neo-
Freudian view that emphasizes the person’s
interaction with the environment as key to
emotional, personality, and social changes.
punishment In learning theory, a conse-
quence that decreases the chance that a
behavior will be repeated.
reality principle In Freudian theory, the
rational part of the ego that operates on
what is reasonable to attain.
reinforcement In learning theory, a con-
sequence that increases the chance that a
behavior will be repeated.
shaping The gradual modification of
behavior by the reinforcement of succes-
sive behaviors that get closer and closer to
a target.
Sigmund Freud The most well-known fig-
ure in the modern study of mental health.
social-cognitive theory Bandura’s theory

55. that suggests that the environment and cog-
nition interact to produce behavior rather
than simply reinforcement and punishment.
socioemotional development The domain
of development that includes the study of
personality, emotion, and socialization. Also
referred to as psychosocial development.
superego In Freudian theory, the part of
the personality that incorporates societal
standards (the conscience) and strives for
perfection (the ego ideal). In opposition to
the id.
tabula rasa In Latin, “blank slate.” Refers to
the idea that human mental development is
based entirely on experiences.
theory In developmental psychology, prin-
ciples formulated to account for how devel-
opmental changes occur.
Urie Bronfenbrenner The creator of a
model by which development is seen as the
result of the intersection of a number of
individual and environmental variables.
Summary and Resources
Web Resources
See links below for additional information on topics discussed
in the chapter.

56. American Journal of Psychology
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=amer
jpsyc&
American Psychological Association
http://www.apa.org/
Developmental Psychology
http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/dev/
Educational Psychology
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx
Harlem Shake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ieTa_dgDik
Health Psychology
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div38.aspx
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div9.aspx
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=amer
jpsyc&
http://www.apa.org/
http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/dev/
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ieTa_dgDik
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div38.aspx

57. http://www.apa.org/about/division/div9.aspx
Post Your Introduction [WLOs: 1] [CLOs: 1, 2, 3, 4]
Prior to completing this discussion, read Sections 1.1 and 1.3 in
the textbook. Also, watch the PSY104 Child & Adolescent
Careers (Links to an external site.) video (PSY104 Child &
Adolescent Careers video transcript) supported by the study of
child and adolescent development. Introduce yourself to your
peers. In your initial post, be sure to state your full name,
occupation, and location.
https://ashford.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Psy+104+Video/1
_lkk13taj
As part of your introduction,
· Identify which of the three domains (i.e., physical perspective,
psychosocial perspective, and cognitive perspective) of
development most piqued your interest for study in this class.
· Explain your career goals to your classmates. How does your
desired degree support those goals? How can what you learn in
this class support those goals?
Post Your Introduction [WLOs: 1] [CLOs: 1,
2, 3, 4]
Prior to completing this discussion, read Sections 1.1 and 1.3 in
the textbook. Also, watch the
PSY104 Child & Adolescent Careers
(Links to an exte
rnal site.)
video (
PSY104 Child &
Adolescent Careers video transcript
) supported by the study of child and a
dolescent

58. development. Introduce yourself to your peers. In your initial
post, be sure to state your full
name, occupation, and location.
https://ashford.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Psy+104+Video/1
_lkk13taj
As part of your introduction,
·
Identify which of the three domains (i.e., physical perspective,
psychosocial perspectiv
e,
and cognitive perspective) of development most piqued your
interest for study in this
class.
·
Explain your career goals to your classmates. How does your
desired degree support
those goals? How can what you learn in this class support those
goals?
Post Your Introduction [WLOs: 1] [CLOs: 1, 2, 3, 4]
Prior to completing this discussion, read Sections 1.1 and 1.3 in
the textbook. Also, watch the
PSY104 Child & Adolescent Careers (Links to an external site.)
video (PSY104 Child &
Adolescent Careers video transcript) supported by the study of
child and adolescent
development. Introduce yourself to your peers. In your initial
post, be sure to state your full
name, occupation, and location.

59. https://ashford.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Psy+104+Video/1
_lkk13taj
As part of your introduction,
perspective, psychosocial perspective,
and cognitive perspective) of development most piqued your
interest for study in this
class.
desired degree support
those goals? How can what you learn in this class support those
goals?