The document discusses covert noun phrases, anaphors, and their antecedents in English. It provides examples showing that covert noun phrases in embedded clauses typically refer to either the subject or object of the containing clause, depending on the predicate. It also defines anaphors as pronouns that must be bound within the same local domain as their antecedent, unlike pronouns. Finally, it notes that while reference systems are generally similar across languages, there are differences in restrictiveness and use of pragmatics.

1. Empty Noun Phrases and Anaphors

2. Created by :
Ayu Melati 2010.1250.1177
Maemunah 2010.1250.1169
ass : R4L

3. Covert Noun Phrases [e] and
Their Antecedents
Anaphors
Some Possible Counterexamples

4. Covert Noun Phrases and Their Antecedents
Example :
The director promised Peter [e] to visit that prison.
container clause embedded clause
Predicate promised requires the antecedents of covert noun phrase to be the container
clause subject. So, convert noun phrase [e] in the sentences refers to the director of
prison.
The director persuaded Peter [e] to visit that prison.
container clause embedded clause
Predicate persuaded requires the antecedents of covert noun phrase to be the
container clause object. So, convert noun phrase [e] in the sentences refers to Peter.
So, covert noun phrases in the subject position of an embedded clause typically have to
have antecedent either the subject or the object of their container clause, depending on
the container clause predicate.

5. Covert noun phrase can sometimes refer to someone or something not
mentioned elsewhere in the sentence, such as the speaker the addressee , or
indefinite form like anyone, anything, someone, or something.
For example :
It’s unusual [e] to see snow at this time of the year
We could replace the [e] in the example with anyone without changing the
sentence’s propositional content. However, we will need to introduce it with
the complementizer for.
It’s unusual for anyone to see snow at this time of the year.

6. Anaphors
Anaphors is a kind of pronoun that has its antecedet in the same minimal clause or
noun phrase.Here is an anaphors paradigm :
Person Reflexive Reciprocal NP- Internal NP-Internal
Number Anaphors Anaphors Reflexives Reciprocals
Ist sg Myself One another, My own, Our One another,
pl Ourselves each other own each other
2nd sg Yourself One another, Your own, One another,
pl yourselves each other your own each other
3rd sg Himself, One another, His, her, its One another,
pl herself, itself, each other, One’s own each other
oneself, One another, Their own
themselves each other

7. Examples :
•The cats washed themselves delicately.
•Julian and his friend visited each other regularly.
•Trudean washes his own hair.
Notice that in the acceptable sentences, the reflexive and reciprocal
anaphors occur in the same clauses as their antecedents, whereas in the
sentences asterisked as ungrammatical, the anaphors and antecedents are
in different clauses.
Anaphors must be bound by antecedents within their smallest clause,
whereas pronouns must be free of any antecedent in their smallest clause.
The two groups thus complement each other.

8. A play that Marlowe wrote about Shakespeare’s treatment of him.
The pronominal him could not have as its antecedent the noun phrase
Shakespeare’s, because they both are in the smallest noun phrase,
Shakespeare’s treatment of him. In contrast, Marlowe, which is not in the
same small noun phrase, could be the antecedent.
A play that Marlowe wrote about Shakespeare’s treatment of himself.
Here the only possible antecedent to bind himself is Shakespeare’s, which
is within the same local domain noun phrase; himself cannot refer to
Marlowe. The notion local domain is thus valid for anaphors too.

9. Some Possibble Counterexamples
Example :
Faust persuaded Mephistopheles [e] to untie him.
Container clause embedded clause
(predicate) (object) (CNP)
Predicate persuaded requires the antecedents of covert noun phrase [e] to be the container
clause object ,that is Mephistopheles. And also, covert noun phrase [e] as subject in the
embedded clause. So, the senteces isn’t really a counterexample because its antecedents
would be in the same local domain and personal pronoun him cannot have their antecedent
in the same clause.

10. Helen didn’t try [e] to free herself
(container clause) (embedded clause)
Subject predicate CNP
Predicate try like promised requires the antecedents of covert noun phrase to be the container
clause subject, that is Helen . And also, the antecedents of the reflexive anaphors herself refers to
Helen. So. This sentences does not constitute a counterexample because its antecedents would
be in the same local domain and have their antecedents in the same clause. The other example :
Lauren didn’t promised [e] to free him.
This sentences is some possible counterexample because Predicate promised requires the
antecedents of covert noun phrase to be the container clause subject, that is Lauren. And him is
not refer to Lauren.
So, Counterexample is sentences which antecedents wouldn’t be in same local domain and not
in the same clause.

11. Counterparts in Other Language
A w o r d li s t e d a s a
m e a n i n g “ sl o hesl”
himef r ref
i n a d i c ti o n a ry o f
a n o t h e r la n g u a g e
m a y h a ve s o m e
p ro p e rti e s ve ry
d i ffe r e n t fr o m t h e

12. Example :
The anaphor himself in the following English sentence can only refer to Wangwu :
Zhangsan believed that Lisi knew that Wangwu had no confidence in himself.
But in the corresponding Mandarin sentence :
Zhangsan xiangxin [Lisi zhiadao [Wangwu dui ziji mei xinxin]].
Zhangsan believed [that Lisi knew [that Wangwu had no confidence in self]]. The
anaphor ziji, “self” can refer to Wangwu, Lisi, or Zhangsan.

13. Conclus n
io
 convert noun phrases in the subject position of an embedded clause
typically have to have antecedent either the subject or the object of their
container clause, depending on the container clause predicate.
 Anaphors include reflexives like ourselves and reciprocals like one
another. An anaphor must be bound (i.e. have an antecedent) within its
local domain; a pronominal must be free within its local domain.
 Speakers of other languages should find the general reference system of
English not too difficult to acquire but would have to get used to different
degrees of restrictiveness and differences in the use of pragmatic
information.