1. Autism
Video Modeling
A Visually Based Intervention
for Children With Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Jennifer B. Ganz
Theresa L. Earles-Vollrath
Katherine E. Cook
Visually based interventions such as moderate or severe autism, often co- Grandin described her thought proces-
video modeling have been demon- occurs with developmental delays, ses as "completely visual" (Grandin &.
strated to be effective witli students emotional and behavioral disorders, Scariano, 1986, p. 131], noting that
with autism spectrum disorder. Tfiis and attention deficits (Kogan et al., she remembered information by visu-
approach has wide utility, is appropri- 2009]. alizing a page in a book with the
ate for use witii students of a range of According to current legislation (i.e.. information and that she had difficulty
ages and abilities, promotes indepen- No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, remembering auditory information
dent functioning, and can be used to Individuals With Disabilities Education unless she was able to pair it with a
address numerous learner objectives, Act], instructional strategies used in visual image. Likewise, Liane HoUiday
including beiiavioral, self-help, commu- classrooms must be scientifically Willey (1999] recalled relying on visu-
nication, and social objectives. What research-based (Simpson, Myles, & al landmarks to find her way to col-
are the components of video modeling? Ganz, 2008]. Visually based instruction lege classes and finding herself drawn
What's the best way to implement such as video modeling, a research- to visually based subjects, such as
video modeling with students? Do the supported intervention, may be more architecture.
techniques differ for students of differ- appropriate and effective than other Visually based approaches may help
ent ages and abilities? approaches for students with ASD for a address pervasive difficulties in stu-
number of reasons (Bellini & AkuUian, dents viiith ASD. These strategies
Recently, the number of people diag- 2007; Delano, 2007b]. respond to stimulus overselectivity by
nosed with autism spectrum disorder assisting students in focusing and
(ASD) has increased drastically, most Sfudenls WiHi ASD as maintaining attention to relevant stim-
recently as common as 1 in 91 [Kogan Visual Learners uli (Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, &
et a l , 2009], although impacts range Students with ASD learn best through Taubman, 2002], and can enhance
from severe to mild impairment (Rice visual means (Hodgdon, 1995; Mesi- children's abilities to independently
et al., 2007]. ASD is common across bov & Shea, 2008; Mesibov, Shea, & complete unfamiliar or complex direc-
races, ethnicities, and social groups Schopler, 2004; Quill, 1997; Simpson tions by condensing the content to
and is four times more common in et al., 2008]. In addition, adults with only essential information (Williams,
boys than in girls (Rice et al., 2007]. ASD have attested to their reliance on Goldstein, & Minshew, 2006]. The per-
Further, ASD, particularly in those with visually based information. Temple manent nature of visually based strate-
8 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

2. gies allows students to review cues, (Dettmer, Simpson, Myles, & Ganz, ing problem behaviors in children ages
decreasing reliance on teacher prompts 2000; MacDuff, Krantz, & McClanna- 7 to 14 (Sasso, Melloy, & Kavale,
and increasing independence (Hodg- han, 1993; Massey & Wheeler, 2000), 1990).
don, 1995). Additionally, visually (b) reduce problem behavior in a 3-
based interventions support students' year-old (Dooley, Wilczenski, & Torem, What Is Video Modeling?
ability to shift attention (Quill 1995, 2001), and (c) facilitate play in 4- to 6- Video modeling is a strategy involving
1997, 1998), make abstract concepts year-olds (Morrison, Sainato, Ben the use of videos to provide modeling
more concrete (Peeters, 1997), and Chaaban, & Endo, 2002). of targeted skills (Bellini & Akullian,
may be less socially stigmatizing than Visually based scripts are another 2007). Both videos that include the
verbal reminders by adults or compan- strategy used with students with ASD participants [video self-modeling, VSM)
ions when in the presence of peers. (Ganz & Flores, 2010; Ganz, Kaylor, and videos of others have been found
There is support in the literature for Bourgeois, & Hadden, 2008). Scripts effective in teaching new skills (Sherer
using visually based strategies with provide the exact words for participat- et a l , 2001). Video modeling including
"other" models may be easier to pro-
duce because these videos generally
Students with ASD learn best through visual means.
require less editing than VSM; typically
developing students may more readily
students with ASD of all ages (Simpson ing in social interactions and other cooperate, understand directions,
et al., 2008). When taught using visu- well-defined situations (Ganz, Gook & already demonstrate mastery of target
ally based strategies, many students Earles-Vollrath, 2006). Visually based skills, and require fewer prompts.
with ASD maintain and generalize scripts have been effective (Simpson et Poinc-of-view modeling, or placing the
newly learned skills (Krantz & McGlan- al., 2008) in (a) increasing social skills video camera at an angle that illus-
nahan, 1993, 1998). In particular, visu- in children ages 5 to 10 (Gonzalez- trates the target skill from the point of
ally based schedules, containing photo- Lopez & Kamps, 1997; Pierce & view of the target student (e.g., camera
graphs or line drawings of upcoming Schreibman, 1995, 1997), (b) improv- is placed at the shoulder of the model
activities or selected play schemes, ing communication skills in students to show the skill from eye level) also
have been used to (a) increase work ages 9 to 12 years old (Krantz & has been demonstrated to be effective
completion for students ages 5 to 14 McGlannahan, 1993], and (c) decreas- (Bellini & Akullian, 2007).
TEAGHING EXCEPTIONAL GHILDREN JULY/AUC 2011 9

3. Video modeling as a strategy has elementary-age students (e.g., Niko- baseline data regarding the student's
preliminary support to improve a vari- poulos & Keenan, 2003; Sherer et al., social strengths and deficits (Heflin &
ety of skills in students with ASD 2001). Alaimo, 2007). This might include eco-
(Ganz et a l , 2006; Ganz, Cook, & The flexibility of video modeling is logical assessments comparing a stu-
Earles-VoUrath, 2007). Video modeling an advantage: In addition to addressing dent's abilities to those of his peers
using videos of "others" has been a variety of skills for a continuum of within a target environment or activity;
demonstrated to age ranges, it can be implemented behavior sampling; observations in the
alone or in conjunction with other natural environment; questionnaires
• Increase appropriate social inter-
instructional strategies. In fact, much and interviews completed by school
actions (Apple, Billingsley, &
of the research involving video model- staff, parents, and peers; and student
Schwartz, 2005; Gena, Couloura, &
ing has been in combination with other self-reports (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007).
Kymissis, 2005; Maione & Mirenda,
strategies. For example, Baharav & Using the assessment results, develop a
2006; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2003).
Darling (2008) used video modeling list of skills and prioritize them in
• Improve conversation skills (Char- with an auditory trainer, Scattone order of importance. Target skills
lop & Milstein, 1989; Charlop- (2008) combined it with social stories, should be objectively defined and
Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000; Sherer and Keen and colleagues (2007) paired based on observational data.
et a l , 2001). video modeling with positive reinforce-
• Improve daily living skills (Haring, ment strategies. Although video model- Step 2: Produce the Videos
Kennedy, Adam, & Pitts-Conway, ing may be implemented alone or with- Prior to developing the videos, deter-
1987; Keen, Brannigan, & Cuskelly, out additional strategies, research sup- mine the type of media to use (i.e.,
2007). ports its use when combined with videotape vs. digital) and then gather
strategies such as social skills instruc- the necessary equipment (e.g., video
• Improve play skills [Charlop-Christy
tion (Bellini & AkuUian, 2007). camera, video player, monitor, video
et al., 2000; Dauphin, Kinney, &
Because video modeling can be editing software; Sigafoos, O'Reilly, &
Stromer, 2004; MacDonald, Clark,
used with students with ASD to de la Cruz, 2007). Plan on creating
Garrigan, & Vangala, 2005; Maione
& Mirenda, 2006; Nikopoulos & strengthen a variety of skills (see three to five videos for each skill, pro-
Keenan, 2003, 2007). Figure 1), it is a strategy that educators viding a variety of settings, models
should have in their toolboxes. It helps (i.e., the student, peers, or adults;
• Reduce problem behaviors [Luscre to understand the components and Buggey et a l , 1999; Sherer et a l .
& Center, 1996).
VSM, although studied less fre-
quently, has been demonstrated to be There are three basic steps for implementing video modeling
effective when used to improve com-
munication skills (Buggey, Toombs,
with students with ASD: identifying the skills to be targeted,
Gardener, & Cervetti, 1999; Sherer et the videos, and implemenliiíg the intervention.
al, 2001), increase social initiations,
decrease problem behaviors (Buggey,
2005), and improve academic and task- 2001), and scripts or task analyses to
oriented behaviors (Delano, 2007a; steps of video modeling, and how to ensure skill generalization (D'Ateno,
Hagiwara & Myles, 1999). Point-of- implement the intervention before Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003).
view modeling has some support as using this approach with students. For the strategy to be most effective,
well, having been shown to improve There are three basic steps for imple- there should be three to five scripts or
daily living skills (Shipley-Benamou et menting video modeling with students task analyses for each skill being
al., 2002) and play skills (Hine & with ASD: identifying the skills to be taught (Ganz et al., 2006). Scripts can
Wolery, 2006). targeted, producing the videos, and be used for skills that require verbal-
In most cases, newly learned skills implementing the intervention. izations (e.g., greeting others, initiating
taught via video modeling are main- conversations, asking to enter a game),
tained over time (MacDonald et al., Components of Video whereas task analyses can be used for
2005; Maione & Mirenda, 2006) and Modeling multistep tasks (e.g., loading the dish-
generalize to new settings or with new washer, using the microwave to cook
adults (Gena et al., 2005), particularly Step 1 : Identify the Target popcorn, performing household chores;
when using multiple videos showing Skill(s) Sigafoos et al., 2007). When writing
the same skill across activities, set- The first step contains several sub- scripts, consider seeking input from the
tings, and people. Video modeling has steps: assessment, listing and prioritiz- student's typically developing peers,
been used effectively with young chil- ing skills, defining the skill, and col- who may be better judges of typical
dren with ASD, including preschoolers lecting baseline data. Prior to imple- activities, nonverbal communication,
(e.g., Maione & Mirenda, 2006) and menting video modeling, document and speech patterns than adults. Task
10 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

4. Figure 1 . Possible Siciiis lo Improve Via Video Modeling
Social initiation - "How do you get to school?"
- "Can I sit with you?" - "What did you eat for breakfast?"
- "Look at this/that." - "What do you like to do after school?"
- Asking a peer to have lunch - "What's your favorite TV show?"
Greetings - "What's your favorite video game?"
- Giving greetings - "What's your phone number?"
- Responding to/greetings - "Wiiere do you live?"
- "What do you like to do on the weekends?"
Appropriate nonverbal communication
- Showing interest in what someone Making requests
is saying [eye contact, nodding) - Asking permission
- Smiling - "i want [food, preferred item, activity]."
- Identifying others' nonverbal cues - Asking for a turn or to borrow something
- Expressing sensory needs
Conversational skills
- Asking/offering to do a new activity
- Maintaining conversation on-topic
- Asking for help
- Comments regarding previous
- Requesting personal space
activities
- Responding to others' comments
- Making jokes
- Sharing attention or enjoyment with another
child or adult
- Telling stories
- Using manners, appropriate language [please thank
you)
- Saying something only once or twice
Play
- initiating game play
- Statements appropriate for games
- Comments appropriate within the context of
specific games
- Sports behaviors
Appropriate behavior in the school building
- Cafeteria
- Waiting in the hall before school starts
Comments Community outings
What to do/say in case of emergency - Appropriate restaurant behavior
- Ordering at a fast-food restaurant
Appropriately demonstrating
- Purchasing items
disagreement/dislike
- Using public transportation
Complimenting others and - Medical/dental visits
reciprocating compliments - Appropriate social behavior at special events
Daily living skills [e.g., [e.g., weddings, birthday parties, holidays, family
cooking, cleaning, get- events, funerals)
ting dressed) - Haircuts
Answering/asking infor- - Travel [plane, car)
mational questions - Waiting in line
- "What's your name?" - Table manners
- "What school do you go Responding appropriately to an adult's requests/
to?" demands
- "How old are you?" Responding to teasing
- "What sports do you like to
Excusing self politely for hygiene purposes
play?"
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JULY/AUG 2011 11

5. analyses can be developed by watching there are not enough natural opportu- To address a lack of reinforcement,
a typically developing peer or adult nities for the student to practice the it may be necessary to identify rein-
perform the skill. skill, plan on role-playing or practicing forcing stimuli that can be delivered
Be sure to obtain parental permis- the skill in the classroom—or arrange immediately and consistently following
sion for any video participants and situations within the school or therapy the demonstration of the target behav-
models who are minors. The models setting where the student is required to ior. Poor video content can also affect
should be taught each script or step in use the target skill. the impact of the intervention. If video
the task analysis, practice it, and then Collect Intervention Data. Collect content seems to be an issue, reshoot
perform while being videotaped (Ganz data on the student's performance. To and/or rewrite and reshoot the video.
et al., 2006). Buggey (2005) recom- determine the effectiveness of video When filming the video, it is important
mends that the models be similar (e.g., modeling, the same type of data to restrict extraneous stimuli (i.e.,
age, gender) to the target student. Plan should be collected for both baseline excess noise and visual distractions)
on editing each video to be approxi- and intervention phases (Sigafoos et and ensure that the target behavior(s)
mately 3 to 5 minutes long (Buggey, a l , 2007). are modeled slowly and clearly. If it
2005), although research has demon- Program for Generalization. Stu- appears that the student does not have
strated the effectiveness of videos as dents with ASD often have difficulties the prerequisite skills of imitation and
short as 30 seconds and as long as 13 generalizing newly acquired skills. observational learning, consider adding
minutes (Bellini & AkuUian, 2007). Programming for generalization, there- adult-directed instruction to the
fore, is an important component of any process.
Step 3: Implement the Video social skills instruction (Bellini, Peters,
Modeling Intervention Benner, & Hopf, 2007; Gresham, 2001). CASE EXAMPU: Chad
Prepare for Teaching. Sigafoos and Teaching skills via video modeling Chad was a fifth-grader who qualified
colleagues (2007) recommend designat- should include teaching multiple stim- for special education and related serv-
ing a time of day for viewing the ulus and response exemplars. For ices under the category of autism. He
videos. Videos focusing on a particular example, when teaching a student how had average cognitive functioning,
skill should be viewed daily and at the to enter a group game, include varying could speak, and participated in gener-
same time each day. In addition, the settings (e.g., playground, gym, neigh- al education for most of the school
videos should be viewed immediately borhood), peers, and scripts (e.g., "Can day, although his day was fairly struc-
prior to the time of day the student is I play?" "Looks like fun, can I have a tured. In sixth grade, Chad would be
expected to demonstrate the skill. For turn?" "What position can I play?") in required to transition from his current
example, if the video and script the different videos. Other generaliza- elementary school to a middle school
describe how to enter a game, show tion strategies include teaching the stu- setting. Chad demonstrated difficulties
the video just before the class has dent to self-monitor or self-record the with major transitions. When he was
recess. use of the target skill, and teaching the not prepared for change, he screamed,
For best results, the video should be social skill in the natural environment pulled his hair, and cried. These behav-
viewed in a consistent setting. To whenever possible (Gresham, 2001). iors were related to new situations in
increase the relevance of the instruc- Videos may need be viewed numerous which he did not understand the
tion, this setting should be the place in times. It's helpful to make arrange- expectations, did not know whom to
which the child is expected to demon- ments so that the student can access ask for help, or was not familiar with
strate the skill. Materials used in the the video for independent viewing as the location.
video should be the same materials the needed.
students will be expected to use when Step 1 : Identify the Torget Skill(s)
demonstrating the target behavior. nvubleshooting Chad's team, which included his ele-
View the Videos. Videos may be Don't be inclined to abandon video mentary and middle school special
watched as a whole group or inde- modeling too quickly if initial data education teachers and general educa-
pendently depending on the needs of indicate limited progress toward the tion homeroom teachers, selected a list
the students and the instructional set- target behavior (s). Although it may of skills from those identified by his
ting (Buggey, 2005). Plan on having appear that this strategy is an easy, individualized education program (IEP)
students view each of the three to five no-fail intervention, as with other and from consultation with the school
videos developed for the targeted skill teaching techniques issues may arise counselor. The team focused on skills
prior to engaging in the selected skill during implementation. Sigafoos et al. that would assist Chad in successfully
or activity (Sigafoos et al., 2007). (2007) described several problems that making the transition to middle school
Engage in the Target Skill. Immedi- may occur, as well as solutions for and in dealing with new situations.
ately after viewing the video, provide each of these problems. Lack of They prioritized the skills and decided
the student with the opportunity to progress can be due to a lack of rein- that "requesting help" when he was
practice the skill, in the natural setting forcement, poor video content, or a feeling anxious would be the first tar-
if possible. If this is not possible or if lack of prerequisites. get skill. Additional target behaviors
12 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

6. Figure 2 . Chad's Video Modeling Script: Requesting Help he demonstrated any of the relaxation
and self-monitoring strategies modeled
in the videos. Although not directly
addressing generalization, this substep
permitted assessing his generalization
of the skill once he was in middle
g to ask school; Chad's middle school special
todo.Vmgoirt
n-m not sure what education teacher observed him and
[sotto voice!
, word problem collected frequency data on his
{or help-" eed help with thi requesting of help, seeing an improve-
C ment over the first few weeks of
'«,*»"*'"]
. varin 1 don V ,,u""—
how you wa"^
us to
school. His mother also sent periodic
written updates to his special educa-
tion teacher, reporting how anxious he
"Mr iNaiii'i
organize this paper- thanks." seemed each school day, and the spe-
cial education teacher would check
with him at the end of the school day
{or your help- to ask him how it went. Although he
reported some anxiety and avoided
crowded hallways, he appeared to han-
dle the transition periods well.
included understanding environmental created videos to teach Chad other
expectations and the orientation of the social skills, such as greetings and initi- CASE EXAMPLE: Sarak
middle school building. ating and maintaining conversations, Sarah was a 16-year-old sophomore
for later use.] diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome.
Step 2: Produce the Videos She had average cognitive functioning
The team recorded digital videos in Step 3: Implement the Video and participated in general education
some of the middle school classrooms Modeling Intervention classes all day, with as-needed special
(i.e., Chad's future homeroom, special Chad's IEP team identified several education support. She appeared to
education resource room, and math times per day, for the remainder of his want to have friends but did not know
classroom] and settings (i.e., cafeteria, fifth-grade year, that he would view the how to establish friendships. Sarah
hallway, library]. Each of the class- videos. "Video watching" was added to would follow her peers between class
room videos included shots of Chad's his visual schedule at the same time periods, even if they were going in the
desk, where he would store his materi- every day. With input from his parents, opposite direction of her next class;
als, the pencil sharpener (an activity the team also established a schedule she would stand by a group of students
that calmed him], and the teacher's for video watching and practicing the who were talking but would not partic-
desk. Middle school teachers and staff skills over the summer ipate in the conversation; and she
were videotaped sharing rules and Chad first watched the video in its often brought her peers small gifts
expectations for the classroom or other entirety, and then specific video clips such as candy and CDs. Sarah had
setting. Chad's team chose to imple- (e.g., home room or math class], dur- recently found that using bodily func-
ment video modeling by peer "others" ing individual one-on-one lessons. tions (e.g., burps and passing gas]
to provide Chad with examples of how Prior to video watching, Chad's were an effective means for gaining her
to respond to signs of anxiety (e.g., teacher introduced the segment and peers' attention; When she passed gas
stiff, hunched shoulders, wide eyes]; the embedded lesson. After each ses- during class and especially during
after acting as if they were upset or sion, Chad was asked to summarize lunch, her peers smiled, laughed, and
anxious, these peer models modeled what he saw in the videos (what the usually interacted with her for a short
self-talk following written scripts models said and did], and then prac- period of time. Studetits also remem-
(Figure 2]. The completed video ticed the relaxation and self-monitoring bered the incident and made com-
included a menu listing each setting strategies demonstrated in the videos. ments when they saw her later in the
and educator/staff member, to enable The intervention continued over sever- day. Sarah expressed frustration to her
selective viewing of a specific environ- al weeks as Chad gained familiarity study hall teacher that she tried her
ment and interaction. The video could with teacher expectations, whom to hardest to make friends, but no one
also be viewed from beginning to the ask for help in each of the middle ever invited her to eat lunch with
end to famiharize Chad with the transi- school settings, and the orientation of them, to hang out after school or on
tions between the settings, and was the school building. the weekends, and they ignored her
recorded in the same order as Chad's During his fifth-grade year, Chad's "friend" requests on online social net-
schedule. (At the same time, the team team collected ongoing data whenever working sites.
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JULY/AUG 2011 13

7. 14 GouNciL FOR EXCEPTIONAL GHILDREN

8. Step 1 : identify the Target Sklil(s) Figure 3. Sarah's Video Modeling Script: Social Interactions
Sarah's team, which included her gen-
eral education study hall teacher and
the school district's autism consultant,
selected a list of several social skills
from her IEP. They then conducted an
1
ecological assessment: After observing
Sarah in the cafeteria and in study hall .— _—
_ '
and conducting teacher and family
interviews, they compared her social "How 's it goi
do you have next.
initiations with those of her peers. The "What class
team felt that if Sarah could learn to
"See you la
interact with her peers in a more
socially acceptable way, she would be
able to make friends and this would
increase her quality of life. They
decided that "initiating social interac- video, she discussed the appropriate CASE EXAMPLE: Sam
tions" would be the first target behav- means for initiating conversations with Sam was a 21-year-old student with
ior, and they collected baseline obser- her peers. One of her assignments was autism and moderate to severe cogni-
vation data during lunch and study to develop a list of the initiation phras- tive impairments who was transition-
hall. es that were used in the videos and ing from a public school program to a
role-play them with the teacher or her part-time job at a local fast-food restau-
Step 2: Produce the Videos peers. Sarah was then asked to suggest rant. Although he had received job
Like Chad's team, Sarah's team chose other comments or phrases she could training through his special education
to implement the strategy using use to initiate conversations. program, this was the first job for
"other" models so she could observe The IEP team collected data by which Sam would receive a salary. A
students who were proficient with observing Sarah during study hall and job coach spent several hours a day on
social interaction. Although the team lunch, as well as in the hallway and the job site with Sam to assist him in
provided the peers with topics to talk selected classrooms. Although Sarah's learning the job requirements.
about, the scripts were open-ended to study hall teacher found it difflcult to
allow for natural conversation instead take real-time data because it was too Step 1 : Identify the Target Skill(s)
of contrived examples (see Figure 3). conspicuous to observe Sarah interact- Sam's job coach and employer brain-
The team asked several of Sarah's pre- ing with her peers in the hallways and stormed a list of job-related skills that
ferred peers to participate in the social at lunch, she noticed that Sarah began would assist Sam in being successful.
skills group. They informed parents of sitting with a group of girls at lunch Sam had difficulties in interacting with
the purpose of the group and obtained approximately three weeks after inter- customers and completing required
permission for the students to partici- vention began. Sarah also reported that tasks. In particular, some customers
pate. The team produced several digital two of the girls had sent her "friend" had complained that Sam was abrupt,
videos of Sarah's peers initiating social requests on online social networking cleared items from the table before
interactions in the hallway and differ- web sites. they were flnished, and appeared rude.
ent classrooms. His coach and employer decided that
To assess Sarah's ability to general-
"making light conversation with cus-
Step 3: Implement the Video ize the skill, the team also observed
tomers" and completing three job
Modeling Intervention Sarah in other school settings not tar-
requirements (i.e., mopping the floor,
geted for initial instruction. They devel-
The team identified several times a day wiping tables, cleaning the condiment
oped additional videos for settings in
and the locations (e.g., study hall, area) were priorities for him to be suc-
which Sarah did not demonstrate gen-
selected classes) where Sarah would cessful on the job. Conducting an eco-
eralization of the skill. They supple- logical assessment, Sam's job coach
view the videos. These times occurred
mented these videos with others show- and employer observed his co-workers
just prior to when Sarah was expected
ing Sarah's peers initiating social inter- to determine the steps for completing
to demonstrate the selected skill.
Although Sarah initially viewed each actions during school-related activities each of the three selected jobs. From
video by herself, some of her peers such as a school dance, a football these observations they developed a
who participated In the videos occa- game, and a pep rally. They later creat- task analysis for each targeted job.
sionally joined her to discuss the sce- ed additional videos to facilitate more They then observed and recorded
narios and to model the questions they advanced conversational exchanges Sam's performance of each of the three
asked themselves to determine what to (e.g., maintaining conversations, stay- jobs and each of the steps in the task
say and when. After Sarah viewed each ing on topic, ending conversations). analysis.
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ¡ JULY/AUG 2011 15

9. Figure 4 . Sam's Video Modeling Script: Making Light Conversation did not meet the full psychological cri-
teria. He received approximately 66%
of his specialized instruction in a spe-
cial education classroom with the
assistance of a one-on-one paraprofes-
sional. Scott's educational program
consisted of structured, data-based pro-
reamr'
gramming that emphasized functional
' „HOW was your m Ê â l / ^ ï ^ ^ ^
academics as well as social and com-
"yi,re you donel" munication skills. In addition to this
O ••Mayl clear your tabler' specialized instruction, Scott also
received 120 minutes of speech therapy
..Haveagoodda^/mEi.^ and occupational therapy per week.
Step 1 : Identify the Torget
Slcill(s)
Scott's IEP team had tried a variety of
Step 2: Produce the Videos discuss the light conversation skill or
strategies to increase his ability to gen-
The "light conversation" digital videos job steps depicted in the video and
eralize academic skills and knowledge
featured several of Sam's co-workers clues for determining when a job had
he demonstrated at school to the home
interacting with customers. Although been completed [e.g., how to deter-
setting. They had used numerous fonts,
Sam could have completed the tasks mine if the tables were clean, how to
materials, and verbal antecedents, and
with prompting [VSM], the job coach's determine if the floors were complete-
incorporated opportunities for Scott to
time was limited and it was faster to ly mopped). Sam then role-played
practice what he learned across a vari-
record videos with "other" models to each job in the area in which it would
ety of settings within the school and in
save time in editing out prompts. naturally occur [e.g., role-playing the
the community. However, even with
While completing other tasks, the co- steps for cleaning the condiment at
the use of these strategies, Scott con-
workers modeled appropriate greet- one of the two condiment areas in the
tinued to demonstrate difficulty com-
ings, comments, and questions [see restaurant). During the role-playing,
pleting homework activities that
Figure 4). Sam's co-workers pretended to be cus-
required him to generalize skills he had
tomers and responded to his "light
A second set of videos designed to performed that day at school. To estab-
conversations. "
teach Sam the job requirements, devel- lish a baseline, sight words mastered at
oped over a 3-week period, showed A month following the beginning school were sent home as "home-
Sam appropriately completing the tar- of the intervention, Sam's employer work." Scott's mother, Alice, then pre-
get activities [VSM). Because Sam had sent his job coach an e-mail com- sented the sight words and collected
many of the subskills necessary for menting that he had not had any fur- data on his performance.
each task, little editing was required to ther complaints about Sam's rude
create a short [5- to 7-minute) video behavior, and that Sam was complet- Step 2: Produce the Videos
for each of the tliree target jobs. The ing most of the video-modeled tasks Because Scott could complete the tasks
video clips contained the verbal independently and correctly. After at school, the team decided to use
prompts provided by the job coach Sam had mastered the video-modeled VSM, which would require little edit-
during the completion of the task; in skills, his employer and job coach dis- ing. The second author videotaped
later viewings of the video, once Sam cussed with him variations in com- Scott accurately reading flash cards at
began to experience success, the vol- pleting each of his assigned jobs. school, edited the video to delete incor-
ume was lowered to remove the verbal Additional videos were produced for rect responses and prompts, then sent
prompts. other new job responsibilities such as the video home for him to watch prior
fining the condiment bar and asking to starting his homework each day.
Step 3: Implement the Video for help when needed [e.g., emptying
Modeling Intervention a heavy trash can, restocking items), Step 3: Implement the Video
The best time for Sam to view the job- and for new social skills [e.g., asking a Modeling Intervention
related videos and those demonstrat- customer if he/she is finished before
Alice collected data on Scott's level of
ing light conversation skills would be taking the plate).
performance with the flash cards with-
just prior to the restaurant opening out the video for a week. Because Scott
each day. Sam, his job coach, and his CASE STUDY: Scott liked watching himself on video, Alice
employer viewed the videos together, Scott was a seventh-grade student who let him watch the video every day for a
one at a time, across several weeks. qualified for special education under week, "just for fun. " Scott continued
After viewing the videos, they would the autism designation, although he reviewing the sight words at school
16 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

10. during his maintenance programming Although Scott made progress in skills that too frequently undermine
but did not review the words at home reading the words on the flash cards, it their success across many contexts.
during this time. The following week, was unclear whether he would be able
Alice showed him the video every day to do so spontaneously and in different References
and talked with him about what they contexts. Scott occasionally became
Apple, A., Billingsley. F., & Schwartz, I.
saw, and how well he did; if he had frustrated with himself when he was (2005). Effects of video modeling aione
previously missed a word, she tried to not able to read the sight words after and with self-management on compli-
point out that word and how well he having seen himself do so accurately ment-giving behaviors of children with
read it in the video. on the video. Alice thought that having high-functioning ASD. Joumal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46. doi:
Following the video viewing and different videos she could rotate in 10.1177/10983007050070010401
discussion, Alice presented the flash viewing, focusing on several tasks and Baharav, E., & Darling, R. (2008). Case
cards and tracked Scott's performance. examples, might result in maintaining report: Using an auditory trainer with
If Scott hesitated or read the word the novelty of and Scott's motivation to caregiver video modeling to enhance
communication and socialization behav-
incorrectly, Alice marked it "incorrect," watch the videos.
iors in autism. Joumal of Autism and
then used a time delay and error-cor- Developmental Disorders, 38, 771-775.
rection procedure, directly instructing Final Thoughts doi: to. 1007/s 10803-007-0429-6
him to sound out each phoneme in the Because children with ASD have a Bandura, A. (1977). Social teaming theory.
word, then blend the sounds together greater propensity to learn through Engiewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
to read the word. (These were the visual means than auditory-based Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-
analysis of video modeling and video
same teaching method and verbal teaching techniques, visually based self-modeling interventions for children
prompts as used at school.) Alice gave strategies such as video modeling hold and adolescents with autism spectrum
Scott social reinforcement for each cor- promise in positively impacting the disorders. Exceptional Children, 73,
rect answer on the video and for each learning of children with ASD. Video 264-287.
correct answer he gave using the flash modeling is based on social learning Bellini, S., Peters, J. K., Benner, L., &
Hopf, A. (2007). A meta-analysis of
cards. When he answered correctly, theory, which asserts that students can school-based social skills interventions
Alice praised him (e.g., "you can learn by observing and then imitating for children with autism spectrum
read," "you're so smart," "good job") the actions of others (Bandura, 1977). disorders. Remedial and Special
and gave him high fives. When he Video modeling is also particularly Education, 28, 153-162. doi: 10.1177
/07419325070280030401
made mistakes, she praised him for his appealing as a technique to address
Buggey, T. (2005). Video modeling applica-
efforts (e.g., "good try; let's look at the social skills deficiencies of children tions with students with autism spectrum
letters"). When they completed the with ASD in a low-cost and unobtru- disorder in a small private school setting.
video and reading all of his words, sive fashion. Focus on Autism and Other Develop-
Alice praised him for doing his home- Video modeling offers educators mental Disabilities, 20, 52-63. doi:
10.1177/10883576050200010501
work. flexibility in implementing, whether
Buggey, T., Toombs, K., Gardener, P., & Cer-
Alice reported high social validity using "other" models, the target stu- vetti, M. (1999). Training responding
for the VSM procedure. In particular, dent, or adults, and a variety of set- behaviors in students with autism: Using
she reported that it was a positive and tings. Schreibman and Ingersoll (2005) videotaped self-modeling. Joumal of Posi-
reinforcing experience: Scott seemed to noted that for video modeling to have tive Behavior Interventions, 1, 205-214.
doi: 10.1177/109830079900100403
enjoy seeing himself succeed, and both a high level of success, it must always
Charlop, M. H.. & Milstein, J. P. (1989).
he and Alice were motivated to contin- occur with direct instruction and natu- Teaching autistic children conversational
speech using video modeling. Joumal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 275-285.
doi: 10.1901/jaba.1989.22-275
Video modeling is also particularly appealing as a Chariop-Christy, M. H., Le, L., & Freeman,
technique to address social skills deficiencies of children K. A. (2000). A comparison of video
modeling with in-vivo modeling for
with ASD in a low-cost and unobtrusive fashion. teaching children with autism. Joumal
of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
30, 537-552. doi: 10.1023/A
:1005635326276
ue and did not lose interest in the flash rally occurring opportunities. The com-
D'Ateno, P., Mangiapanello, K., & Taylor, B.
cards as quickly as she thought they bination of video modeling, direct (2003). Using video modeling to teach
would. Scott also seemed to gain some instruction, and facilitated support complex play sequences to a preschooler
confidence by watching himself per- within naturally occurring environ- with autism. Joumal of Positive Behavior
form well on the video. Further, Scott ments is more apt to lead to success. Interventions, 5, 5-11. doi: 10.1177
Video modeling gives practitioners a /10983007030050010801
made gains in reading accuracy
Dauphin, M., Kinney, E. M., & Stromer, R.
through this process, although he con- heuristic tool to help children with
(2004). Using video-enhanced activity
tinued to miss different words each ASD learn or improve the social, com- schedules and matrix training to teach
day. munication, behavior, and work-related sociodramatic play to a child with
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JULY/AUG 2011 17

11. autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Hagiwara, T., & Myles, B. S. (1999). A mul- schedules: Maintenance and generaliza-
Interventions. 6, 238-250. doi: 10.1177 timedia social story intervention: Teach- tion of complex response chains. Journal
/10983007040050040501 ing skills to children with autism. Focus of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26, 89-97.
Delano, M.E. (2007a). Improving written on Autism and Other Developmental doi: 10.1901/jaba.l993.26-89
language performance of adolescents Disabilities. 14. 82-95. doi: 10.1177 Maione, L., & Mirenda, P. (2006). Effects of
with Asperger syndrome. Journal of /108835769901400203 video modeling and video feedback on
Applied Behavior Analysis. 40, 345-351. Haring, T. G., Kennedy, C. H., Adam, M. K., peer-directed social language skills of a
doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.50-06 & Pitts-Gonway, V. (1987). Teaching gen- child with autism. Journal of Positive
Delano, M. E. (2007b}. Video modeling eralization of purchasing skills across Behavior Interventions, 8, 106-118. doi:
interventions for individuals with community settings to autistic youth 10.1177/10983007060080020201
autism. Remedial and Special Edu- using videotape modeling. Journal of Massey, N. G., & Wheeler, J. J. (2000).
cation. 28. 33-42. doi: 10.1177 Applied Behavior Analysis. 20, 89-96. Acquisition and generalization of activity
/07419325070280010401 doi: 10.1901/jaba.l987.20-89 schedules and their effects on task
Dettmer, S., Simpson. R. L., Myles, B. S., Heflin, L. J., & Alaimo, D. F. (2007). engagement in a young child with autism
& Ganz, J. B. (2000). The use of visual Students with autism spectrum disorders: in an inclusive pre-school classroom.
supports to facilitate transitions of stu- Effective instructional practices. Upper Education and Training in Mental Retar-
dents with autism. Focus on Autism Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. dation and Developmental Disabilities,
and Other Developmental Disabilities. Hine, J. F., & Wolery, M. (2006). Using 35, 326-335.
15. 163-169. doi: 10.1177 polnt-of-view video modeling to teach Mesibov, G. & Shea, V. (2008). Structured
/108835760001500307 play to preschoolers with autism. teaching and environmental supports.
Dooley, P.. Wilczenski, F. L, & Torem, C. Topics in Early Childhood Special In K. D. Buron & P. Wolfberg (Eds.),
(2001). Using an activity schedule to Education, 26, 83-93. doi: 10.1177 Learners on the autism spectrum: Pre-
smooth school transitions. Journal of /02711214060260020301 paring highly qualified educators (pp.
Positive Behavior Interventions. 3. 57-61. Hodgdon, L. Q. (1995). Solving social- 114-137). Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism
doi: 10.1177/109830070100300108 behavioral problems through the use Asperger.
of visually supported communication.
Ganz, J. B., Gook, K. E., & Earles-Vollrath, Mesibov, G., Shea, V, & Schopler, E. (2004).
In K. A. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children
T. L. (2006). How to write and implement The TEACCH approach to autism spec-
with autism: Strategies to enhance
sociai scripts. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. trum disorders. New York, NY: Springer.
communication and socialization (pp.
Ganz, J. B., Cook, K. E.. & Earles-Vollrath, Morrison, R. S., Sainato, D. M., Ben
265-285). New York, NY: Delmar.
T. L. (2007). A grab-bag of strategies for Chaaban, D., & Endo, S. (2002).
Keen, D., Brannigan, K. L., & Guskelly, M.
children with mild communication Increasing play skills of children with
(2007). Toilet training for children with
deficits. Intervention in School and autism using activity schedules and cor-
autism: The effects of video modeling.
Clinic, 42, 179-187. doi: 10.1177 respondence training. Journal of Early
Journal of Developmental and Physical
/10534512070420030801 Intervention, 25, 58-72. doi: 10.1177
Disabilities. 19. 291-303. doi: 10.1007
Ganz, J. B., & Flores, M. M. (2010). Social /105381510202500106
/S10882-007-9044-X
interactions for children with autism: A Nikopoulos, G. K., & Keenan, M. (2003).
Kogan, M. D., Blumberg, S. J., Schieve, L.
script-fading procedure for beginning Promoting social initiation in children
A., Boyle, G. A., Perrin, J. M., Ghandour,
readers. Young Exceptional Children. 13, with autism using video modeling.
R. M Van Dyck, P. G. (2009). Preva-
58-70. doi: 10.1177/1096250609351795 Behavioral Interventions, 18, 87-108.
lence of parent-reported diagnosis of
Ganz, J. B.. Kaylor, M., Bourgeois, B., & doi: 10.1002/bin.l29
autism spectrum disorder among children
Hadden, K. (2008). The impact of social Nikopoulos, G. K., & Keenan, M. (2007).
in the US, 2007. Pediatrics. 124, 1-9. doi:
scripts and visual cues on verbal commu- Using video modeling to teach complex
10.1542/peds.2009-1522
nication in three children with autism social sequences to children with autism.
Krantz, P., & McGlannahan, L. (1993).
spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Journal of Autism and Developmental
Teaching children with autism to initiate
Other Developmental Disabilities. 23, Disorders, 37, 678-693. doi: 10.1007
to peers: Effects of a script-fading pro-
79-94. doi: 10.1177/1088357607311447 /S10803-006-0195-X
cedure. Journal of Applied Behavior
Gena, A.. Gouloura. S., & Kymissis, E. Analysis. 26, 121-132. doi: 10.1901/jaba Peeters, T. (1997) Autism: From theoretical
(2005). Modifying the affective behavior .1993.26-121 understanding to educational inter-
of preschoolers with autism using in vivo Krantz, P. J., & McGlannahan, L. E. (1998). vention. San Diego, GA: Singular.
or video modeling and reinforcement Social interaction skills for children with Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1995).
contingencies. Journal of Autism and autism: A script-fading procedure for Increasing complex social behaviors in
Developmental Disorders. 35, 545-556. beginning readers. Journal of Applied children with autism: Effects of peer-
doi: 10.1007/s 10803-005-0014-9 Behavior Analysis. 31, 191-202. doi: implemented pivotal response training.
Gonzalez-Lopez, A., & Kamps, D. (1997). 10.1901/jaba.l998.31-191 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
Social skills training to increase social Luscre. D. M., & Genter, D. B. (1996). Pro- 28, 285-295. doi: 10.1901/jaba.l995
interactions between children with cedures for reducing dental fear in .28-285
autism and their typical peers. Focus children with autism. Journal of Autism Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1997).
on Autism and Other Developmental and Developmental Disorders. 26, Multiple peer use of pivotal response
Disabilities. 12. 12-14. doi: 10.1177 547-556. doi: 10.1007/BF02172275 training to increase social behaviors of
/108835769701200101 MacDonald, R., Glark, M., Garrigan, E., & classmates with autism: Results from
Grandin, X, & Scariano, M. M. (1986). Vangala, M. (2005). Using video model- trained and untrained peers. Journal of
Emergence: Labeled autistic. New York, ing to teach pretend play to children with Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 157-160.
NY: Warner Books. autism. Behavioral Interventions. 20, doi: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-157
Gresham. F. M. (2001). Interpreting out- 225-238. doi: 10.1002/bin.l97 Quill, K. (1998). Environmental supports to
comes of social skills training for stu- MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., & McGlan- enhance social-communication. Seminars
dents with high-incidence disabilities. nahan, L. E. (1993). Teaching children in Speech and Language, 19, 407-422.
Exceptional Children. 67, 331-344. with autism to use photographic activity doi: 10.1055/S-2008-1064057
18 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

12. Quill, K.A. (1995). Teaching children with Williams, D. L., Goldstein, G., & Minshew,
autism: Strategies to enhance communica- N. J. (2006). Neuropsychologic function- Social Skill Builder
tion and socialization. Albany, NY: ing in children with autism: Further «»>iW3 Tuols
Delmar. evidence for disordered complex infor-
Quill, K. A. (1997). Instructional considera- mation-processing. Child Neuropsy-
tions for young children with autism: chology, 12, 279-298. doi: 10.1080
The rationale for visually cued instruc- /09297040600681190 invaluable <rooltl"
tion. Journal of Autism and Develop-
mental Disorders, 27, 697-714. doi: Jennifer B. Ganz (Texas CEC), Associate
10.1023/A: 1025806900162 Professor of Special Education, Department
Rice, C. E., Baio, J., Van Naarden Braun, K., of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M
Doernberg, N., Meaney, F. J., & Kirby, R. University, College Station. Theresa L.
S. (2007). A public health collaboration Earles-Vollrath (Missouri CEC), Associate
for the surveillance of autism spectrum Professor of Special Education, Educational
disorders. Paediatric and Perinatal Leadership and Human Development,
Epidemiology, 21, 179-190. doi: 10.1111 University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg.
/j.1365-3016.2007.00801.x Katherine E. Cook (Kansas CEC), Autism
Sasso, G. M., Melloy, K. J., & Kavale, K. Specialist, Department of Early Childhood,
(1990). Generalization, maintenance, Olathe School District, Kansas.
and behavioral co-variation associated
with social skills training through struc- Correspondence concerning this article
tured learning. Behavioral Disorders, should be addressed to Jennifer Cam,
16, 9-22.
Scattone, D. (2008). Enhancing the conver-
Department of Educational Psychology,
Texas A&M University, College Station,
JfJJT
sations skills of a boy with Asperger's TX 77843 (e-mail: jeniganz@tamu.edu).
Disorder through Social Stories'" and
video modeling. Journal of Autism and "Chad, " "Sarah, " and "Sam " are composite
Developmental Disorders, 38, 395-400. characters: "Scott" is a pseudonym. The
doi: 10.1007/S10803-007-0392-2 authors wish to thank "Scott" and "Alice"
Schreibman, L., & Ingersoll, B. (2005). for their participation.
Behavioral interventions to promote
learning in individuals with autism. In
TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 43,
F. R. Vlokmaar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D.
No. 6, pp. 8-19.
Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and
pervasive developmental disorders:
Volume two: Assessment, interventions, Copyright 2011 CEC. Developed in collaboration with Michelle
Garcia Winner S Pamela Cfooice, based on
and policy (3rd ed., pp. 882-896). Sbook YouAmSociilDetectm
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Sherer, M., Pierce, K. L., Paredes, S.,
Kisacky, K. L., Ingersoll, B., & Schreib-
man, L. (2001). Enhancing conversational Social Skill Builder's interactive software
skills in children with autism via video
technology. Which is better, "self" or uses video reenactments of real-life
"other" as a model? Behavior Modifi- Ad index situations to achieve social awareness and
cation, 25, 140-158. doi: 10.1177
understanding in children and young adults.
/0145445501251008
Shipley-Benamou, R., Lutzker, J. R., & Attainment, cover 2, 1
• Different complexity levels
Taubman, M. (2002). Teaching daily
living skills to children with autism • Customizable lesson plans
through instructional video modeling. California University of
Journal of Positive Behavior Inter- • For preschoolers to young adults
Pennsylvania, 35
ventions, 4, 165-175. doi: 10.1177 • Over 350 video lessons each*
/10983007020040030501
Sigafoos, J.. Q'Reilly, M., & de la Cruz, CEC, 7, 44, 53, 63, cover 3 • Also includes motivating games
B. (2007). How to use video modeling •Preschool Playtime:lSO videos ea.
and video prompting. Austin, TX:
PRO-ED. Conover, 4, 5
Simpson, R. L., Myles, B. S., & Ganz, J. B. See demos of all our innovative social
(2008). Efficacious interventions and skill-building programs on our website:
treatments for learners with autism spec-
Social Skill Builder, 19
trum disorders. In R. L. Simpson & B. S.
Myles (Eds.), Educating children and
socialskillbuildet.com
youth with autism: Strategies for effective
practice (2nd ed., pp. 477-512). Austin,
Waiden University, cover 4
866-2Z8-1452
TX: PRO-ED.
Willey, L. H. (1999). Pretending to be nor-
mal: Living with Asperger's syndrome.
Social Skill Builder
Ä^^mg Tools
London, England: Jessica Kingsley.
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JULY/AUG 2011 19

13. Copyright of Teaching Exceptional Children is the property of Council for Exceptional Children and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.