3. Mood and Eating Behaviour - Attitudes to food
Explanation
Some explanations of eating behaviour such as mood are used as a temporary
escape from a negative mood such as sadness or anxiety. People turn to food
consciously or unconsciously to deal with stress, a problem or just a low mood.
Binge eating is when a person eats an excessive amount of food until
uncomfortably full. This tends to be when a person is alone and before a meal
time where they will consume a large amount of food regardless of whether they
are hungry or not. By using this escape, a person is able to use food as a
comfort to deal with feelings but later regrets what they have done leading to
further upset.
Comfort eating on the other hand is eating to compensate for a low mood in
order to provide some what of an uplift. When a person is comfort eating, they
tend to stick to high calorie, sweet and fatty foods as these provide a satisfying
taste which is used to suppress negative emotions.
Evidence
Garg et al (Comfort eating)
Observed food choices 38 participants watching a funny and sad film
Participants were offered popcorn or grapes during the film
Participants watching the sad film consumed 36% more popcorn whereas
participants watching the funny film ate more grapes
In a variation of this study, when nutritional information was given to participants
beforehand, snacking dropped
Evaluating studies
Garg et al – Using a real life situation (in a cinema) somewhat reflects normal
day life
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
Reductionist – Its only biological explanations, its objective
Nature vs Nurture – It supports nature saying that its innate but the nurture side
explains that it depends on our environment as to how much we eat
Free will – its suggesting we do not have any control over what we eat which is
false
General
Subjective – non-scientific evidence
High ecological validity – eating is done in any setting so its normal
Individual differences – everyone copes with sadness differently, we don't all
4. Culture - Attitudes to food
Explanation
The factor of culture means it is dependant on our backgrounds as to what we
find attractive in terms of body image. For example, a white person is more
likely to have eating concerns compared to an Asian or black women. White
women tend to find a slim women more attractive whereas a Black women
wouldn't as they see that as a sign of malnutrition therefore see more plump
women more attractive.
Class also effects women's attitude to food. For example, body dissatisfaction if
more commonly found in higher class individuals and are more likely to diet than
lower class individuals as income is dependant on being able to afford the more
expensive, healthier kinds of foods.
Children in the UK are surrounded by food such as nuggets, pizza and chips
whereas children in India grow up believing Spicer food if better for you.
Evidence
Ball and Kenardy
Studied 14,000 women between the ages of 18-23 in Australia
The longer time any ethnicity spent in Australia the more likely these people
adopted the attitudes of women born in Australia
This is known as the acculturation effect
Evaluating studies
Ball and Kenardy – Only used Australian women – Ethnocentric and gender bias
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
Gender bias – Culture tends to focus on the woman's perspective of things and
cannot be applied to both genders
Eurocentric – Its entirely based on culture, lacks generalizability
Deterministic – Each person is there own and has control of their own views of
attractiveness which sometimes stray from the norm
Reductionist – Other environmental factors i.e mood can influence what you eat
Nature vs nurture – Environment has not been taken into consideration
General
Large sample size – using variety of countries culture
5. Social Learning Theory - Attitudes to food
Explanation
Social Learning theory is when our behavior is learnt through observing those
around us so our eating behavior is determined by the behavior of people we
know. Modelling has an impact on our behaviour as we copy what others do
whether this be media, family or parents. Personal circumstances such as
income, age or family circumstances all influence this.
Parental modelling is one way that eating behaviour is controlled. This is where
children observe the habits of their parents and copy what they see them do.
Parents tend to pick what food their child is eating and will often only buy foods
that they like themselves. In this sense, children copy what their parents eat.
Media can also influence children's eating behaviour. If a child is watching one
of their favourite childhood characters eat a food they may not be so keen on,
you may start to see that because the character they like is eating it, they also
like it.
Evidence
Kotler
Assessed the role of media characters in children's food choice
Experiment one – Children picked one particular food when it was associated
with a character
Experiment two – Children were willing to try new food and character than new
food and an unknown character
When children were picking between healthy food and character and unhealthy
food they picked the unhealthy one
Evaluating Studies
Kotler et al – Social class might mean that children are used to trying new foods
so are more likely to eat this despite the media character
Evaluating Theory
IDA’s
Reductionist – Does not take into account alternate views such as culture in
Nature vs Nurture – Does not take into account their environmental factors for
eating behaviour
Free will – We cannot hold the children responsible for their eating habits if their
parents pick the food for them have little control over what they eat
General
7. Restraint theory (Boundary model) - Success and Failure of
Diets
Explanation
Dieting is when you restrain yourself from eating as much. The restraint
theory states that more often than not, when you diet, you are more likely
to put on weight rather than take it off. This is due to the constant feeling
of not being full therefore needing to eat more and tending to overeat. In
doing this, more often than not diets fail as the person is never totally full.
Evidence
Herman and Polivy
The boundary model was introduced by Herman and Polivy. The boundary
model can explain why diets are not successful. When a person is on a
diet and has already gone over their limit (i.e- more 1700 calories) the
person therefore will give up for that day and just eat until they are full.
This is because a dieter will have a larger range between hunger and
satiety level. Because it takes longer for a person to feel full, they feel like
they need to eat more than they would regularly.
Evaluation studies
The model is over generalising in assuming that all diets do not work due
to us never being full yet some people do loose loads of weight on their
diets.
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
The theory is too deterministic. We have free will over our food choices
and what to or what not to eat therefore we cannot forget we have our own
self control.
The theory is also reductionist. It does not take into consideration
biological factors that may encourage us to overeat such as an absence of
leptin which would encourage overeating.
General
The treatment to overweight people is usually to restrain their eating habits
yet the theory suggests that it causes overeating.
Ogden proposed the question of how anorexics are still managing to stay
Hunger Satiety
Hunger Diet boundary Satiety
8. Role of Denial - Success and Failure of Diets
Explanation
The role of denial is the attempt to suppress or block a thought from your
memory. However, the tends to work in the opposite way and makes us
think about it more often making the problem more dominant in our
memories.
Applying this to dieting, dieters attempt to suppress the thought to eat
certain foods that are seen as forbidden such as chocolate, crisps or
sweets. In turn, the dieter therefore simultaneously sees the forbidden
foods as more attractive and has increased motivation to eat it.
Evidence
Wegner
Told the participants not to think about a polar bear but if they did then they
should ring a bell
The control group were encouraged to think a polar bear and also ring the
bell when they did
The results showed that those told not to think about a polar bear naturally
thought about it more and rang the bell more times than those encouraged
to ring it
This was known as ‘the theory of ironic processes of mental control’ which
represents the effect of paranoia on thought control and how denial of one
thing creates compulsion to have it
Evaluating studies
Low ecological validity as it is not in a natural setting to sit and told to think
about something
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
Nature vs nurture – no evidence for nurture and environment , theory only
supports nature and that we naturally behave this way
Gender Bias- The theory tends to support the women perspective as men
do not tend to diet as much as women do
General
Some people are more strong willed than others so will naturally be more
able to diet better than others
9. Having a successful diet - Success and Failure of
Diets
Explanation
It has been suggested that the key to a successful diet is detail. If we pay
more attention to what we put inside our bodies, we tend to get excited
more to eat even the healthiest type of food which results in us eating
healthier. By focusing on the detail, people do not become bored with the
same boring salad and so are able tot maintain a better diet.
Evidence
Redden
135 participants were given 22 jelly beans one at a time with information
about it
Group ones information was more general i.e- bean number 7
Group twos information had more detail i.e- cherry flavour number 7
Participants from group one got bored more easily whereas group two
found the task more enjoyable
Evaluating studies
The jelly bean is not a dieting food therefore cannot be applied to diets
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
Eurocentric – research tends to be done of western cultures where the
ideal is to look slim
General
Detail does explain anorexia as anorexics pay huge amounts of attention
to what they eat and loose weight
11. Homeostasis - Neural Mechanisms
Explanation
Homeostasis is the cycle of eating. It detects and corrects its internal
environment. The main switches which turn eating ‘off’ and ‘on’ is the
Lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus.
When a person becomes hungry an increase in blood glucose results in
eating until reaching a level of satiety. The ventromedial hypothalamus is
alerted that we are full acting as the ‘off’ switch. The process of becoming
full and the message sent to our brains telling us this is slow so often
results in overeating. Over a period of time, blood glucose levels decline.
Eventually, the Lateral Hypothalamus is alerted switching ‘on’ our eating.
We then feel hungry and eat again. This is a continuous cycle which
doesn’t end.
Evidence
Zhang et al
Mice were split into two groups (all mice had a leptin deficiency), half of
which were injected with Leptin and he other half left normally
Mice who were injected with leptin felt a less need to eat proving that leptin
needs to be present in animals in order for the homeostasis process to
work effectively
Evaluating studies
Rats were used in the study so resulted cannot be generalised for humans
Evaluation Theory
IDA’s
Nature vs nurture- The theory is based on nature in that it is our genes
that control this but does not take into account nurture and how the
environment effects us
Free will – The approach is biological therefore we have no real control
over how it effects us
General
Eating
Increase in blood
glucose
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus Satiety
Stop eating
Decrease in blood
glucose
Lateral
hypothalamus
Hungry
12. Lateral Hypothalamus vs Ventromedial Hypothalamus -
Neural Mechanisms
Explanation
The Lateral hypothalamus, also known as the hunger centre, 'turns on’
eating. When it has been switched on, a person will seek out to find food
and consume it. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is an important neurotransmitter
which helps turns on eating. An excess amount of this neurotransmitter
can cause a mass amount of overeating even when satiated. Damage to
the lateral hypothalamus results in a condition called aphagia (lack of
eating) – a refusal to eat food even when hungry.
The Ventromedial hypothalamus, also known as the satiety centre, does
the opposite job, it ‘turns off’ eating. It sends messages to the brain to tell
us that we are full and need to stop eating. But the process is slow which
is why we often overeat. Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus
causes a condition of hyperphagia (over eating).
Evidence
Bayliss et al
They found that when they damaged the Ventromedial Hypothalamus in
rats by making lesions in them, they became obese
This proves that when there is damage to the Ventromedial Hypothalamus,
homeostasis cannot function correctly
Evaluating studies
Rats were used in the study so resulted cannot be generalised for humans
Evaluation Theory
IDA’s
Reductionism – the system is not as simple or adaptive as it is made out to
be, there is a lot of other factors which determine our eating process (i.e-
medical conditions)
Deterministic – We pick and choose what we eat and when we eat it, its
not always the body telling us what to do
General
Strong biological evidence to support explanation
13. Amygdala & Inferior frontal cortex - Neural
Mechanisms
Explanation
The amygdala is the selection of foods based a previous experience. For
example, a person might avoid a certain food due to previously having a
bad experience with it. This also means that a person is more likely to
select a familiar food over an unfamiliar food because they already know it
tastes good.
The inferior frontal cortex deals with smells. The olfactory blub is the part
of the brain which is responsible for smell. If a food smells bad or not what
we are use to, we would be less likely to eat it because we associate smell
with taste. Likewise, if we smell something tasty, we are more inclined to
eat it as it appeals to our smell and henceforth, it appeals to our taste.
Evidence
Rolls and Rolls
Removed the amygdala in rats
They found that rats then ate both familiar and unfamiliar foods
Other rats who still had their amygdala in tact would tend to eat more
familiar foods
Evaluating studies
Animal study – the findings from rats cannot be generalised to humans
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
Reductionism – all biological, no emotion or evolutionary explanation
included
Determinism – we have control over what we eat and just because we
smell something tasty doesn't mean we have to eat it, some like to try new
things
Nature vs nurture- No environmental cause, all nature - genes
General
Individual differences- some people are more curious and willing to try new
14. Taste aversion
Environment of evolutionary
adaption (EEA) and Diet
Evolutionary
15. Taste Aversion - Evolutionary
Explanation
Taste aversion is the response of the taste or smell of food resulting in our
like or dislike of the food. Bait shyness is a form of taste aversion. It was
originally found by farmers who discovered that it was difficult to kill the
rats from eating the crops as they would take a small amount of food and
see if the become ill or not. From this, the rat would learn to avoid the food
and try on other foods. The rat associates the illness with the crop
therefore learns to not eat it again. Recently, this has occurred with the
odour of food. If a food smells wrong or nasty, it would be assumed this is
poisoned and will learn not to eat it. In todays society, this could mean a
person might smell cheese and assume it is off. This is due to our
ancestors realising that some foods are poisoned and we would assume
the similar thought process.
The medicine effect is another taste aversion. The rats on these farmers
crops can also learn which foods are good for them and help them heal
quicker. They will learn which foods help them heal the fastest and
therefore will be preferred in the future.
Evidence
Garcia et al
Exposed rats to a short amount of radiation shortly after eating a type of
food
The rats associated the effects of radiation with the food and therefore did
not want to eat the food anymore
Evaluating studies
Ethical – Were the rats left were permeant affects of radiation – protection
from harm
Evaluation
IDA’s
Animal issues – The reaction and behaviour of the rats cannot be
generalised to humans as we do not function in the same way
Reductionism – No biological aspects have been taken into account, all
based on how those before us acted, how can we prove these are relevant
in todays society
16. Diet – Meat and Early Diet - Evolutionary
Explanation
The Environment of evolutionary adaption (EEA) is the environment from which
species first evolved and adapted. Animals all lived in different conditions in different
areas of the word and therefore have adapted to survive in different ways. It is the set
of problems faced by members of that species over time. The species face
reproductive problems that another animal wouldn’t. Natural selection had favoured
adaptions geared towards survival.
Early humans were hunter-gatherers whose diet was either animal or plant based
foods. We grew a natural desire for fatty foods when it was discovered a high amount
of energy was required to live and hunt on. Food today still has the same amount of
energy (calories) however is not particular nutritious. In the EEA, calories were not
easily available and because they are today, it is easy to see why we have grown such
a preference towards fatty foods.
In the EEA, meat tended to be more readily available than plants did. In particular,
animal organs i.e- liver, kidneys and brains (food high in energy) were most commonly
eaten. This was necessary for us to grow and develop intelligence. Meat supplied early
humans with essential amino acids, minerals and nutrients to substitute for lack of
plants.
Evidence
Gibson and Wardle
The best way to prove the evolutionary explanation and that food preference is innate
is to test it on children
They offered the children a variety of vegetables from which they selected which ones
they would most like to eat
The children picked the most calorific foods e.g- bananas and potatoes proving we
have an innate preference towards high calorie foods
Evaluating studies
Research was focused on a long time ago from which no one today was alive to
witness which means evidence is based on not necessarily truthful information – lack of
validity
Evaluation
IDA’s
Ethnocentric – If we evolved to all like certain foods then why do certain countries tend
to dislike certain types of food than others?
Reductionist – Fails to include biological causes for eating behaviour i.e- lateral and
ventromedial hypothalamus
17. Cultural & Media
Ethnicity & Peers
Personality
Anorexia Nervosa
(Psychological)
18. Cognitive - Anorexia Nervosa (Psychological)
Explanation
The cognitive explanation of anorexia nervosa states that it is a result of
faulty thinking which causes irrational beliefs about food. Often sufferers of
anorexia have misperceptions about their body e.g.- view their body as
overweight when its actually underweight. They have the ‘all or nothing’
thinking. If they fail at one hurdle they have ruined their life. Another form
of speaking they experience is the magical thinking. “If I reach a size 6 I
will be perfect. Or overgeneralizing thinking “If I fail at controlling my eating
I will fail at life”
The faulty thinking distortions may be that they blame their self worth and
self esteem, on their appearance and unless they look good they will never
feel good. Catastrophizing is a process whereby a person will
overemphasise the importance of one event and always assume the worst.
“ If I eat that piece of cake I will turn fat”
Evidence
McKenzie et al
Anorexic patients judged their ideal weight as lower than normal patients
Following a sugary snack, they placed themselves as a higher body size
whereas normal patients did not
Evaluating studies
Cannot accurately rate body weight on a scale they make themselves
Evaluating theory
IDAS
Gender bias – most research is female based due to the nature of the
disorder
Reductionist – Focuses on the brain waves which may be biological but
does not consider environment
General
19. Culture and Media - Anorexia Nervosa (Psychological)
Explanation
The western culture often portrays models to look slim, tall and beautiful.
It tends to be the teenagers that are mainly affected by this and more
female than male. The teenage female are therefore most at risk of
having a lower self-esteem and therefore are most at risk of developing
Anorexia nervosa. Other cultures may praise excess weight. The African
culture tends to see a more plumb women as more attractive as it shows
a sign of wealth and excess eating.
The media affects people in a variety of different ways. The media
portrays this image of thin models through television, magazines and
newspapers and people are socialised into believing that is what we
should look like. Those with an already lower self esteem will compare
themselves to these models. Some will continue on in a diet to make
themselves to look this way. Anorexia will result in these diets taken to the
extreme and feeling more of a compulsion to look as good as they do.
Social learning theory suggests that we copy behaviour from role models.
In this instance, the models portrayed in the media are the role models
which the teenagers copy and follow.
Evidence
Gregory et al
Around 16% of 15-18 year old girls are ‘currently on a diet’ in the UK.
Jones and Buckingham
Individuals with a lower self-esteem are more likely to compare
themselves to idealized images portrayed in the media.
Evaluating studies
Gregory et al - Ethnocentric – Only the British culture, cannot generalise
for other cultures
Evaluation
IDAs
Reductionism – No biological factors such as neurotransmitters included
making it one sided
Deterministic – Assumes that by watching TV you will get an eating
disorder
21. Neurotransmitters - Anorexia Nervosa (Biological)
Explanation
Neurotransmitters can explain the onset of Anorexia . Serotonin and dopamine
have been found to contribute to anorexia. Both have been found to exist at
abnormal levels in individuals with anorexia.
Dopamine is seen as the pleasure centre. When the levels of dopamine
increase, the pleasure centre works in a faulty way and change the way we
interpret rewards. Diet restriction has been associated with reduced dopamine
levels in the hypothalamus. The altered pleasure centre then sees weight loss
and hunger as desirable.
Serotonin is seen as the calming neuro transmitter. An increase in the level in
serotonin means a person is able to reduce their weight as they see sense in
their actions. Serotonin feelings are associated to feelings of well being an
satiety and an anorexic can justify their lack of food intake this way as they
teach themselves to not be hungry. High levels are found in current anorexia
suffers who show anxiety. In order for these feeling of anxiety to stop they need
to reduce eating.
Evidence
Kaye et al
Used PET scans of 10 recovering Anorexia suffers and 12 healthy people.
There was an over activity of dopamine on the Anorexia suffers.
It was described that hunger pains are now the pleasurable feeling and eating is
negative.
Evaluating studies
Kaye et al only used 24 people in total which cannot be generalised to the
general population
Evaluating theory
IDAs
Nature vs nurture – Clear nature and biology effectively investigated but no
evidence of nature and environment or how the family might effect things
Gender bias – looking into anorexia means there has been an emphasis on
females and results may not be the same for men
General
22. Neurodevelopment - Anorexia Nervosa (Biological)
Explanation
Neurodevelopment is the association between premature birth and
anorexia. Brain damage to the child through birth complications causing
hypoxia (lack of oxygen) impairs the development of the baby. If the
mother has anorexia, the baby will not be getting sufficient nutrients. This
gives the child a ‘double disadvantage’ as the mother can transmit a
genetic vulnerability to the baby and inadequate nutritional supply.
It has also been suggested that the season of birth you are born is
somewhat contributing to the likelihood of having anorexia. If you are born
in the spring time, you are the most at risk. This is because, whilst the
baby is still inside the mother during the colder winter months, they get
more infections and colds affecting the babies development.
Evidence
Eagles
Anorexic individuals are born later than regular babies
The more elder siblings the child had increased the likelihood of exposing
the mother to common infections
Evaluating studies
Millions of children are born in certain seasons of which a small
percentage are anorexic
Evaluating theory
IDAs
Deterministic in assuming all children born in spring or born late is
anorexic
Nature vs nurture – No involvement of nurture and environment
General
How does this explain other babies you get diseases during pregnancy but
parents are not anorexic
23. ‘Adapted to flee’ and the reproductive suppression
hypothesis - Anorexia Nervosa (Biological)
Explanation
The hypothesis suggests that the reason anorexics are capable with going
without food is an evolutionary development of migration. The symptoms of
anorexia reflect back to a time where famine in a country resulted in
migration. Many years ago when there was an outbreak of disease
amongst crops, a deficit of food would result in many people migrating to a
new area to survive. During these periods, people could go for many days,
if not weeks without eating with no choice. Food restriction is a common
feature when migrating. As a result, a survival instinct kicks in to cope with
food restriction and the human body has adapted to cope with these
situations of lack of food and can explain why anorexics today can send
days without feeling the need to eat.
The reproductive suppression hypothesis suggests that teenage girls
would starve themselves in order to delay their mensuration which means
they are unable to get pregnant. The explanation is adaptive as it allows a
female to stop conceiving when conditions are not suitable for their
offspring's survival. In the absence of contraceptives, weight loss can
prevent pregnancy. It is necessary for a mother to have a certain amount
of fat in order for mensuration and distorts fertility chances.
Evidence
The explanation was created by Guisinger.
The reproductive suppression hypothesis was introduced by Surkey.
Evaluating studies/explanation
IDA’s
Deterministic – if everyone is adapted to cope with long periods without
food then why does everyone not act the same way as anorexics.
Reductionist – anorexia is a complex disorder which these explanations
fail to explain as it is oversimplifying the reasons for its onset.
Nature vs nurture – It is a biological approach so focuses on nature but
has also looks into nurture and how our previous environment effects the
way we are today
General
Cannot presume there is a direct cause and effect between these
hypothesis’ and onset of anorexia.
Cause of anorexia is identifying but no look into why it is maintained which
