gothic art,roman art

1. Poornima University,
Jaipur
School of Planning And Architecture
2015-2016
REPORT
ON
―HISTORY OF ART‖
Submitted To – Submitted By –
Ms P. Lalita Lakshmi Chitransh Maheshwari
Faculty of Arts and Graphics І year / ІІ semester
Section – B
1Q/15/06

2. S.No CONTENT PAGE NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
INTRODUCTION
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
MESOPOTAMIA ART
EGYPTIAN ART
GREEK CULTURE & SCULPTURE
ROMAN ART
MEDIEVAL CULTURE
PRE-ROMANESQUE
GOTHIC ART
EARLY RENAISSANCE
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CULTURE
HIGH RENAISSANCE
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
BAROQUE ART
NEOCLASSICISM
ROMANTICISM
CONTEMPORARY ART

3. INTRODUCTION
Art history is the study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic
contexts, i.e. genre, design, format, and style.[1]
This includes the "major" arts of
painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the "minor" arts of ceramics, furniture,
and other decorative objects.
As a term, art history (also history of art) encompasses several methods of studying
the visual arts; in common usage referring to works of art and architecture. Aspects
of the discipline overlap. As the art historian Ernst Gombrich once observed, "the
field of art history [is] much like Caesar's Gaul, divided in three parts inhabited by
three different, though not necessarily hostile tribes: (i) theconnoisseurs, (ii)
the critics, and (iii) the academic art historians".[2]
Art history is not only a biographical endeavor. Art historians often root their studies
in the scrutiny of individual objects.The historical backbone of the discipline is a
celebratory chronology of beautiful creations commissioned by public or religious
bodies or wealthy individuals in western Europe. Such a "canon" remains prominent,
as indicated by the selection of objects present in art history textbooks. Nonetheless,
since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more
inclusive of non-Western art, art made by women, and vernacular creativity.
Art history as we know it in the 21st century began in the 19th century but has
precedents that date to the ancient world. Like the analysis of historical trends in
politics, literature, and the sciences, the discipline benefits from the clarity and
portability of the written word, but art historians also rely on formal
analysis, semiotics, psychoanalysis andiconography. Advances in photographic
reproduction and printing techniques after World War II increased the ability of
reproductions of artworks. Such technologies have helped to advance the discipline
in profound ways, as they have enabled easy comparisons of objects. The study of
visual art thus described, can be a practice that involves
understanding context, form, and social significance.

4.  PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
In prehistoric art, the term "cave painting" encompasses any parietal art which involves the
application of colour pigments on the walls, floors or ceilings of ancient rock shelters.
Cave Painting in Three Stages
The completed drawing of the animal would
be coloured or filled in with red ochre or
other pigments. The edges of the animal's
body would be shaded with black or another
pigment to increase its three-dimensionality.
Alternatively, depending on whether or not
the contour of the cave wall made it
necessary, engraving or even sculpting
would be applied to boost volume and relief.
All colour pigments used in cave painting were sourced locally, mostly from mineral
sources found in the earth. Stone Age painters employed several different
combinations of materials to make colour paints.
Archeological evidence shows that painted caves were not inhabited by ordinary
people. They were inhabited only by a small group of artists, or others involved in the
cave's ceremonial activities. It is now thought that cave painting was created by
shamans for ceremonial reasons - perhaps in connection with social, supernatural or
religious rituals.
 STONE AGE
 BRONZE AGE
 IRON AGE

5. STONE AGE
Stone Age is divided into three types according to the period:
1. Palaeolithic Age (12000 BC)
"Paleolithic" means "Old Stone Age," and begins with the first use of stone tools. The
Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. Early Humans used stone tools with
single sharp edges. These early humans used cave art to depict life.
2. Mesolithic Age (10000-6000 BC)
Early humans developed needles and thread for making animal skin clothes. Began to
use controlled fires and develop language. These early humans began to migrate from
Africa to other parts of the world.
3. Neolithic age (8000-6000)
In this time period, humans learned to polish stone tools and make pottery. These early humans
moved away from being hunters and gathered to raising animals and growing their own crops (farming).
 MESOPOTAMIA ART (5000 BC -2000BC):
One of the world earliest civilizations grew up on the
fertile plains between the river Tigris and Euphrates. The
area became known as Mesopotamia, ―the land between
two rivers‖. About 5000 BC, the Sumerians settled in
southern Mesopotamia.
The Art of Mesopotamia has survived in the
Archaeological record from early hunter-gatherer societies
on to the Bronze Age cultures of the Sumerian, Akkadian,
Babylonian and Assyrian empires. These empires were
later replaced in the Iron Age by the Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian empires.
The first traces of settled communities are found in the
northern region and date from the mid-6th millennium
BCE, a period that archaeologists associate with the
One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a
ruler around 2090 BC

6. transition from a Neolithic to a Chalcolithic age. It is of some importance that this
period also corresponds to the earliest use of painted ornament on pottery vessels,
since the designs used for this purpose are the most reliable criteria by which
ethnological groupings and migratory movements can be distinguished.
Archaeologically, such groupings are, for the most part, arbitrarily named after the site
at which traces of them were first found, and the same names are sometimes attributed
to the prehistoric periods during which they were predominant.
 EGYPTIAN ART
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three main periods:
 The old kingdom (2700-2200)
 The middle kingdom (2050-1800)
 The new kingdom (1500 - 1100)
Ancient Egyptian art is the painting,
sculpture, architecture and other arts
produced by the civilization of ancient
Egypt in the lower Nile Valley from
about 3000 BC to 100 AD. Ancient
Egyptian art reached a high level in
painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic
Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried and kiln-baked bricks, fine sandstone,
limestone and granite. Architects carefully planned all their work. The stones had to fit
precisely together, since there was no mud or mortar. When creating the pyramids,
ramps were used to allow workmen to move up as the height of the construction grew.

7.  GREEK CULTURE AND SCULPTURE
Greek Mythology is the first Western civilization about 2000 BC. It consists mainly of
a body of diverse stories and legends about a variety of gods. Greek mythology had
become fully developed by about the 700s BC.
Greek Sculpture comes from
Greek art of classical antiquity is believed to be a mixture of Egyptian, Syrian, Minoan
Mycenean and Persian cultures - which are themselves derived from Indo-European
tribes migrating from the open steppes north of the Black Sea. Greek sculptors learned
both stone carving and bronze-casting from the Egyptians and Syrians, while the
traditions of sculpture within Greece were developed by the two main groups of
settlers from Thessaly - the Ionians and Dorians.
Timeline of Greek Sculpture
The chronology of sculpture in Ancient Greece is traditionally divided into three main
periods:
• The Archaic Period (c.650-500 BCE)
Greek sculptors start to develop monumental marble sculpture.
• The Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE)
The creative highpoint of Greek sculpture
• The Hellenistic Period (c.323-27 BCE)
What is the History of Early Greek
Sculpture?
Bone and ivory carving had been produced in
Egypt since about 5,000 BCE, as part of cultural
traditions established during the late Stone Age
(10,000-5,000 BCE). Then, from 2,600 BCE
onwards, came various strands of Aegean art,
notably Minoan civilization on Crete, with
its stone sculpture, fresco painting, ceramics Family group on a grave marker from Athens,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens

8. and metalwork. Minoan culture collapsed around 1425 BCE, and the mainland-
based Mycenean art became the dominant type of Greek culture - known for its
ceramic pottery, carved gemstones and glass ornaments - until about 1150 BCE, when
they too were taken over - this time by invading Dorians. After this came the Greek
"Dark Ages" - a 400-year period of chaos and fighting, when little if any art was
produced. During the calmer 8th century BCE, however, a new culture of visual
art began to emerge, involving pottery and some painting and sculpture, while
Homer's Iliad and The Odyssey were also written around this time. However,
sculptural development remained extremely slow until the Archaic Period (c.600-500
BCE). For more about the earliest Archaic styles, see: Daedalic Greek Sculpture (650-
600). For a wider ambit, see: Etruscan Art (c.700-90 BCE).
Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of
the archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These
monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times
were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal"
types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people,
typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. They are
among the most intimate and affecting remains of the Ancient Greeks.
In the Classical period for the first time we know the names of individual
sculptors.Phidias oversaw the design and building of the Parthenon. Praxiteles made
the female nude respectable for the first time in the Late Classical period (mid-4th
century): his Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was said by Pliny to be
the greatest statue in the world.
The greatest works of the Classical period, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia and
the Statue of Athena Parthenos are lost, although smaller copies (and good
descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted emperors to
seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where
they were later destroyed in fire

9.  ROMAN ART
It refers to the visual arts made in Ancient Rome and in
the territories of the Roman Empire. Roman art
includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic
work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem
engraving, ivory carvings, and glass, are sometimes
considered in modern terms to be minor forms of
Roman art although this would not necessarily have
been the case for contemporaries. Sculpture was perhaps
considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but
figure painting was also very highly regarded. The two
forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, with a
very large body of sculpture surviving from about the
1st century BC on wards, though very little from before,
but very little painting at all remains, and probably
nothing that a contemporary would have considered to
be of the highest quality.
Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a
vast production of "fine wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that
reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at
what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of
propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers. Other perishable forms of art
have not survived at all.
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and
that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly
influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan
speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta,
usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on
one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the
expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek
territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire
Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture
became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman
elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only
in copies of the Roman period. By the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working
in Rome" were Greek, often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BC),
Fresco from the Villa of the
Mysteries. Pompeii, 80 BC
Section of Trajan's Column, CE 113,
with scenes from the Dacian Wars

10. and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very
rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as
booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with
re-used Greek works.
In the Classical period there was a revolution in Greek statuary, usually associated
with the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated
with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of
sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic (see the Charioteer of Delphi for an example
of the transition to more naturalistic sculpture), and the technical skill of Greek
sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From
about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and
Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the
first public monuments to actual people.
At the same time sculpture and statues were put to wider uses. The great temples of the
Classical era such as the Parthenonin Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia,
required relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the
triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge
stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Unfortunately these works
survive only in fragments, the most famous of which are the Parthenon Marbles, half
of which are in the British Museum
 MEDIEVAL CULTURE
In the feudal system society was organized as a pyramid of sorts. The clergy and
nobles were at the top, with a great many peasants at the bottom. Peasants
worked on the land and lived in rough huts, which they often shared with their
animals. They slept on straw mattresses on the floor. In the middle were the
scientists, merchants, craftsmen and yeoman farmers.
The middle Ages also gave much to later generations. Great cathedrals were built and
universities were started. Latin was the language used by most scholars. Painting and
literature developed.

11. Philosophy
Thomas Aquinas believed that both reason and
Christian teaching came from God. Therefore, both
reason and faith came from the same teaching.
Code of Chivalry
King Arthur and his knights became the highest
symbols of courage, faith, and chivalry.
The Troubadours
The Troubadours were noble poet-musicians who
pledged to serve their ladies as loyally as they would
their lords.
Women
Attitudes towards women changed. Now, women were
treated with respect. But, women were seen as helpless,
beautiful, and pure - unrealistic.
Science
Medieval science was limited because science was not just reason and observation.
Scientific theories continued to be mixed with superstition and legend. Most medieval
scientists practiced the mysteries of alchemy (trying to turn lead into gold).
Merchants
Merchants bought and sold goods such as furs and wool. Some became very wealthy
and started the first banks. Merchants and craftsmen formed powerful associations
called guilds. They sold their goods at fairs where people gathered to trade and to have
fun.
The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over
1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes
major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists
crafts, and the artists themselves.
Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, often with
some difficulty. A generally accepted scheme includes the later phases of Early
Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, insular art, Pre-
Romanesque, Romanesque art, and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within
these central styles. In addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of
becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon
art or Norse art.
Dante, crowned with poet's laurel, opens
his Divine Comedy
as souls struggle heavenward through
Purgatory.
I5th-century fresco in the city's cathedral;
Scala. Domenico di Michelino

12. Medieval art was produced in many media, and the works that remain in large
numbers include sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained
glass, metalwork and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than other
media such as fresco wall-paintings, work in precious metals or textiles,
including tapestry. Especially in the early part of the period, works in the so-called
"minor arts" or decorative arts, such as metalwork, ivory
carving, enamel and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly
valued than paintings or monumental sculpture.
Religious Architecture
The Latin cross plan, common in
medieval ecclesiastical
architecture, takes the
Roman basilica as its primary
model with subsequent
developments. It consists of
a nave, transepts, and
the altar stands at the east end
(see Cathedral diagram).
Also, cathedrals influenced or
commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a Greek
cross (resembling a plus sign), with the altar located in the sanctuary on the east side
of the church.
Cloisters of Mont Saint-Michel, Normandy, France.

13. Military Architecture
Surviving examples of medieval secular
architecture mainly served for
defense. Castles and fortified walls provide the
most notable remaining non-religious examples
of medieval architecture. Windows gained a
cross-shape for more than decorative purposes,
they provided a perfect fit for a crossbowman to
safely shoot at invaders from inside. Crenellated
walls (battlements) provided shelters for
archers on the roofs to hide behind when not
shooting invaders.
Civic Architecture
While much of the surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military,
examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe.
Examples include manor houses, town halls, almshouses and bridges, but also
residential houses.
PRE-ROMANESQUE
European architecture in the Early Middle Ages may be divided
into Early Christian, Romanesque architecture, Russian church
architecture, Norse Architecture, Pre-Romanesque,
including Merovingian, Carolingian, Ottonian, and Asturian.
While these terms are problematic, they nonetheless serve
adequately as entries into the era. Considerations that enter into
histories of each period include Trachtenberg's "historicising" and
"modernising" elements, Italian versus northern, Spanish, and
Byzantine elements, and especially the religious and political
maneuverings between kings, popes, and various ecclesiastic
officials.
Zvolen Castle in Slovakia strongly
inspired by Italian castles of the
fourteenth century
Early medieval secular architecture in
pre-romanesque Spain: the palace
of Santa María del Naranco, c.850.

14. Romanesque
Romanesque, prevalent in medieval Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries, was the first pan-
European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the
continent. The term was not contemporary with the art it describes, but rather, is an invention of
modern scholarship based on its similarity to Roman Architecture in forms and materials.
Romanesque is characterized by a use of round or slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, and
cruciform piers supporting vaults.
Gothic
The various elements of Gothic architecture emerged in a number of 11th and 12th century building
projects, particularly in the Île de France area, but were first combined to form what we would now
recognise as a distinctively Gothic style at the 12th century abbey church of Saint-Denis inSaint-
Denis, near Paris. Verticality is emphasized in Gothic architecture, which features almost skeletal
stone structures with great expanses of glass, pared-down wall surfaces supported by external flying
buttresses, pointed arches using the ogive shape, ribbed stone vaults, clustered columns, pinnacles
and sharply pointed spires. Windows contain stained glass, showing stories from the Bible and from
lives of saints. Such advances in design allowed cathedrals to rise taller than ever, and it became
something of an inter-regional contest to build a church as high as possible. Variations included
these Brick Gothic
GOTHIC ART

15. Gothic art was a style of Medieval art that developed in Northern France out
of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development
of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, never quite effacing more
classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style
of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th
century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the
16th century, before being subsumed into Renaissance art. Primary media in the
Gothic period included sculpture,panel painting, stained glass, fresco and illuminated
manuscripts. The easily recognizable shifts in architecture from Romanesque to
Gothic, and Gothic to Renaissance styles, are typically used to define the periods in art
in all media, although in many ways figurative art developed at a different pace.
EARLY RENAISSANCE
Early Italian Renaissance art began to emerge in Florence during the first decade of
the 15th century. Building upon Proto-Renaissance art, including the work of Proto-
Renaissance artists like Cimabue and Giotto (see the latter's Scrovegni Chapel
frescoes, especially The Betrayal of Christ (1305) and The Lamentation of
Christ (1305) - as well as the Pre-Renaissance painting of Duccio di Buoninsegna) -
Florentine and other Tuscan artists such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio
and Andrea Mantegna, instigated a series of discoveries and improvements in all the
visual arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), which effectively revolutionized the face
of public and private art in Italy and beyond. It even influenced the
conservative Sienese School of painting in Siena. Although it eventually spread
throughout Italy, the Early Renaissance was centred on Florence and patronized by the
Florentine Medici family. Towards the end of the century, the movement reached its

16. high point during the period known as the High Renaissance(c.1490-1530): notably in
the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian. (Note: the term
"Renaissance", used to describe the upsurge of Italian art and culture, during the
period 1400-1530, was first coined by the 19th century French historian Jules
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE
The two greatest sculptors of the early Italian Renaissance sculpture were the
Florentines: Donato di Niccolò di BettoBardi, more commonly known as
Donatello (1386-1466), and Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-88) - the latter being
somewhat overshadowed both by the earlier Donatello and by the later Michelangelo.
Donatello, the indisputable pioneer of modern Italian sculpture, was (along with
Brunelleschi and Masaccio) a pivotal figure in quattrocento fine art. He reinvented the
medium of sculpture in much the same way as Masaccio, Pierodella Francesca and
Mantegna revolutionized painting, and in the process became famous throughout Italy.
He could bring a statue to life by investing it with intense realism, and emotion. His
masterpiece, the five feet tall bronze sculpture David (1440s), created for the Medici
family and errected in the Palazzo Medici in Florence, was the first life-size nude since
Antiquity. Wearing only a hat and boots, the slender almost feminine Biblical
shepherd boy seems hardly capable of the violence needed to slay Goliath, yet he
retains a hypnotic mystery for the spectator. The new Renaissance style is evident in
both the Classical nudity and the use of Classicalcontrapposto (twist of the hips), as
well as the boldness of interpretation. For more, see: David by Donatello (1440s,
Bargello Museum, Florence).

17.  HIGH RENAISSANCE
The artists of the following generation were
responsible for taking art to a level of noble
expression. This period, usually referred to
as the High Renaissance, was initiated by
Leonardo da Vinci, who, when he returned
to Florence from Milan in 1500, found the
milieu ready for his pictorial inventions.
There he found the young Michelangelo,
who was about to begin the famous gigantic
statue David (1501-1504, Accademia). This
bold image soon became not only the
symbol of the city of Florence, but of High
Renaissance art as well, and a standard
against which other works were measured. David as a subject has all the potentiality
for vigorous, forceful action, but Michelangelo chose to show instead his self-control
the moment before the encounter with Goliath, much as Leonardo had done with the
figures of the apostles in the Last Supper (1495-1497, Santa Maria delle Grazie,
Milan) by choosing to depict the moment just after Christ has said that one of them
will betray him. During the High Renaissance, artists tended to reduce their subjects to
the bare essentials; few extraneous details or anecdotal features were permitted,
ensuring that the viewer's attention would be focused on the essence of the theme.
The center of the High Renaissance began to shift to Rome and the court of Pope
Julius II, who hired the leading Italian artists and architects to work on his ambitious
projects. Donato Bramante was the outstanding architect of the period. An Umbrian,
he started out as a painter working in the style of Pierodella Francesca. After a long
stay in Milan, during which time Leonardo was also there, Bramante settled in Rome.
There he produced such works as the Tempietto (1502), a miniaturized
classical tholos (round) temple set in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio; a series
of private palaces including the so-called House of Raphael (destroyed in the 17th
century); and, most notable of all, the design (1506?) for the new Saint Peter's
Basilica. For the main church of Roman Catholic Christendom, Bramante envisioned a
centrally planned, domed, Greek-cross (equal-armed) structure. Michelangelo
eventually took charge of the construction of the church, making changes that suited
his own architectural aims but remaining close in spirit to Bramante's original design.
Bramante also had a strong influence on later Renaissance architects, including the

18. Sienese Baldassare Peruzzi, who built the Farnesina (1509-1511), the finest private
villa of the early 16th century, for the Chigi family in Rome.
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory
The process of sedentarization is first thought to have occurred around 12,000 BCE in
the Levant region of southwest Asia though other regions around the world soon
followed. The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or
Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in various locations between 8,000 and 5,000
BCE, specifically in south-western /southern Asia, northern/central Africa and Central
America. At first the Neolithic was associated with shifting subsistence cultivation,
where continuous farming led to the depletion of soil fertility resulting in the
requirement to cultivate fields further and further removed from the settlement,
eventually compelling the settlement itself to move. In major semi-arid river valleys,
annual flooding renewed soil fertility every year, with the result that population
densities could rise significantly. This encouraged a "secondary products revolution"
where domesticated animals became useful for more than meat production; being used
also for milk, wool, manure and animal traction of ploughs and carts, a development
which spread through the Eurasian Oecumene. The 8.2 Kiloyear Arid Event and
the 5.9 Kiloyear Interpluvial which saw the drying out of semiarid regions and a major
spread of deserts.This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic
violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village
communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilisations.
This "urban revolution" marked the beginning of the accumulation of transferrable
surpluses which enabled economies and cities to develop. It was associated with the
state monopoly of violence, the appearance of a soldier class and endemic warfare,

19. rapid development of hierarchies, the appearance of human sacrifice]
and a fall in the
status of women
A civilization (US) or civilisation (UK) is any complex society characterized
by urban development, social stratification, symbolic communication forms
(typically, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over
the natural environment by a cultural elite. Civilizations are intimately associated with
and often further defined by other socio-politico-economic characteristics,
includingcentralization, the domestication of both humans and other
organisms, specialization of labor, culturally ingrained ideologies of
progress and supremacism, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence
upon farming as an agricultural practice, and expansionism.
Back in India, the Indus Valley Civilization was already producing the finest cities in
the world with proper sanitation and town planning receiving the heaviest focus. By
mature Harappan times (circa 2600 BC), this civilization grew to such an extent in
area as well as in population that it indicates a powerful centralized authority present
in the system. Even during the Chalcolithic period (circa 4300 BC) artifacts from this
region show similarity to those found in cultures in Turkmenistan and northern Iran,
which denotes considerable trade.
BAROQUE ART
Baroque art tended to be large-scale
works of public art, such as monumental
wall-paintings and huge frescoes for the
ceilings and vaults of palaces and
churches. Baroque painting illustrated
key elements of Catholic dogma, either
directly in Biblical works or indirectly in
mythological or allegorical
compositions. Along with this
monumental, high-minded approach,
painters typically portrayed a strong sense of movement, using swirling spirals and
upward diagonals, and strong sumptuous colour schemes, in order to dazzle and
surprise. New techniques of tenebrism and chiaroscuro were developed to enhance

20. atmosphere. Brushwork is creamy and broad, often resulting in thick impasto.
However, the theatricality and melodrama of Baroque painting was not well received
by later critics, like the influential John Ruskin (1819-1900), who considered it
insincere. Baroque sculpture, typically larger-than-life size, is marked by a similar
sense of dynamic movement, along with an active use of space.
Baroque architecture was designed to create spectacle and illusion. Thus the straight
lines of the Renaissance were replaced with flowing curves, while domes/roofs were
enlarged, and interiors carefully constructed to produce spectacular effects of light and
shade. It was an emotional style, which, wherever possible, exploited the theatrical
potential of the urban landscape - as illustrated by St Peter's Square (1656-67) in
Rome, leading up to St Peter's Basilica. Its designer, Bernini, one of the
greatest Baroque architects, ringed the square with colonnades, to convey the
impression to visitors that they are being embraced by the arms of the Catholic
Church.
Famous Baroque Painters
 NEOCLASSICISM
Neoclassicism is the name given to
Western movements in the decorative and
visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and
architecture that draw inspiration from the
"classical" art and culture of Ancient
Greece or Ancient Rome. Neoclassicism
was born in Rome in the mid-18th
century, but its popularity spread all over

21. Europe, as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and
returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman
ideals. The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of
Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, latterly competing
withRomanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and up
to the 21st century.
European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-
dominant Baroque and Rococostyles. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace,
ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of
simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient
Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism.
Each "neo"-classicism selects some models among the range of possible classics that
are available to it, and ignores others. The neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and
collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an idea of the generation
of Phidias, but the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be
Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures.
Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of
French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann,
and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden
and Russia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in
the interiors for Catherine II's lover Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with
a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and thebas-
relief overdoors hint of neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.
A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium
of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of
the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis
XVI style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in
Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a
political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.

22.  ROMANTICISM
It was an artistic, literary, and intellectual
movement that originated in Europe toward the
end of the 18th century and in most areas was at
its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to
1850. Romanticism was characterized by its
emphasis on emotion and individualism as well
as glorification of all the past and nature,
preferring the medieval rather than the classical.
It was partly a reaction to the industrial
revolution, the aristocratic social and political
norms of the age of enlightenment, and the
scientific rationalization of nature. It was
embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music,
and literature, but had a major impact on
historiography education, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex
effect on politics, and while for much of the romantic period it was associated
with liberalism and radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was
perhaps more significant.
Defining the nature of romanticism may be approached from the starting point of the
primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance
the romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the german
painter caspar david friedrich that "the artist's feeling is his law".to William words
worth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which
the poet then "recollect[s] in tranquility," evoking a new but corresponding emotion
the poet can then mould into art. To express these feelings, it was considered that the
content of the art had to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little
interference as possible from "artificial" rules that dictated what a work should consist
of. Samuel taylor coleridge and others believed there were natural laws that the
imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow
through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from
other works was considered to impede the creator's own imagination, so
that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to
produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is
key to romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin. This idea is often called
"romantic originality."

23. Not essential to romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief
and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the effect of
nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the
usually very social art of the enlightenment, romantics were distrustful of the human
world, and tended to believe that a close connection with nature was mentally and
morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be
felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry
invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".
Contemporary Art
 Contemporary art is art produced at the present period in. Contemporary art
includes, and develops from,postmodern art, which is itself a successor
to modern art. In vernacular English, "modern" and "contemporary" are
synonyms, resulting in some conflation of the terms "modern art" and
"contemporary art" by non-specialists.
REFERENCE :
Wikipedia , www.historytoday.com , besthistorysites.net , arthistory.net ,
www.arthistory.upenn.edu