Knowledge management

Ch Muhammad Irfan +92-345-4426176 facebook.com/chmuhammedirfan skype id:
ch.irfan786
Topic:
Define knowledge management in your words. Discuss its importance in today’s
organization.
Knowledge Management:
Efficient handling of information and resources within a commercial organization.
Importance of Know management:
Most companies are focused on producing a product or service for customers. However, one of the
most significant keys to value-creation comes from placing emphasis on producing knowledge. The
production of knowledge needs to be a major part of the overall production strategy.
One of the biggest challenges behind knowledge management is the dissemination of knowledge.
People with the highest knowledge have the potential for high levels of value creation. But this
knowledge can only create value if it's placed in the hands of those who must execute on it.
Knowledge is usually difficult to access – it leaves when the knowledge professional resigns.
For example, AT&T's knowledge management system provides instant access for
customer service representatives, allowing them to solve a customer's problem in a matter of
minutes. Monsanto uses a network of experts to spread the knowledge around. Employees can look
up a knowledge expert from the Yellow Page Directory of knowledge experts.
Topic:
List and explain the various driving forces for knowledge management.
Following are the four forces that driving the knowledge management:
 Increasing Domain Complexity
 Accelerating Market Volatility
 Intensified Speed of Responsiveness
 Diminishing Individual Experience
 Increasing Domain Complexity
Intricacy of internal and external processes, increased competition, and the rapid advancement of
technology all contribute to increasing domain complexity.
 Accelerating Market Volatility
The pace of change, or volatility, within each market domain has increased rapidly in the past
decade.
 Intensified Speed of Responsiveness.
The time required to take action based upon subtle changes within and across domains is
decreasing.
 Diminishing Individual Experience
High employee turnover rates have resulted in individuals with decision-making authority having
less tenure within their organizations than ever before. Because trends change so rapidly, a
decision-maker’s experience may not be relevant to the decision that needs to be made.

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Topic:
What is Knowledge management? What role does it play in achieving
organizational goals?
Knowledge Management:
Efficient handling of information and resources within a commercial organization.
Role it plays in achieving organizational goals:
The primary role of KM is to connect to "knowledge nodes" both the knowledge providers and the
knowledge seekers. The knowledge of the mind of one provider may thus be ultimately transferred
to the mind of someone who seeks that knowledge, so that a new decision can be made or situation
handled. KM provides a means of capturing and storing knowledge and brokering it to the
appropriate individual.
 To Capture Knowledge
This goal can be achieved by creating KM repositories. Those will consist of structured
documents with Knowledge embedded in them — memos, reports, presentations, articles —
stored in a way that they may be easily retrieved.
 To Improve Knowledge Access
To facilitate the processes of knowledge, transfer between individuals and between
organizations.
 To Enhance the Knowledge Environment
By proactively facilitating and rewarding knowledge creation, transfer and use.
 To Manage Knowledge as an Asset
Some companies are including their intellectual capital in the balance sheet, others are
leveraging their knowledge assets to generate new income from or to reduce costs with their
patent base.
Topic:
What is intellectual capital? What are three types of intellectual capital and
how they relate to different knowledge management solution:
Intellectual capital is the intangible value of a business, covering its people (human capital), the
value inherent in its relationships (Relational capital), and everything that is left when the
employees go home (Structural capital), of which Intellectual property (IP) is but one component.
Types of intellectual capital:
 Human Capital
It refers to the skills/competences, training and education, and experience and value characteristics
of an organization’s workforce that in the minds of individuals: knowledge, skills, competences,
experience, know-how, capabilities, expertise of the human members of the organization.
 Relational Capital (also Relationship Capital, Customer Capital, External Capital)

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All relations a company entertains with external subjects, such as suppliers, partners, clients.
External capital comprises relationships with customers and suppliers, brand names, trademarks and
reputation.
 Structural Capital (also Organizational Capital, Internal Capital)
That which is left after employees go home for the night": processes, information systems,
databases, policies, intellectual property, culture, etc. Thus, the knowledge embedded in
organizational structures and processes.
Topic:
Contrast and explain the difference b/w Data and Knowledge:
Knowledge:
Knowledge would be an organized, historic, information about the world (e.g. by taking the before
mentioned example of a bit stream knowledge would be the facts that ASCII character are one byte
wide, or in the named entities example rules for identifying a named entity). One might say
that knowledge is a database of fact about the world.
Example:
The shop manager can see that vanilla is the most popular ice-cream flavor. Next time he places an
order; he will ask for five times as much vanilla ice-cream than chocolate ice-cream.
Data:
Data would be the precepts a machine system gets about the world. It might be structured, or
unstructured. Noisy or clean. Relevant or Irrelevant, and so on.
Example:
That a sales order at a restaurant included two large burgers and two medium-sized vanilla
milkshakes is an example of data.
Topic:
Identify and explain in detail different types of knowledge:
Explicit Knowledge:
By definition, explicit knowledge can be captured in words. It’s the facts. Answers on Jeopardy.
Tree/false tests. Retention of explicit knowledge is easily measured and graded and for that reason
it’s where tests focus, over-simplified or not. We grade recent recall, but people have forgotten 90%
of what they learned before they have the opportunity to apply it.
Tactic Knowledge:
It’s about really doing it. It’s what separates a chef from a home cook following recipes. Tacit
knowledge can’t be captured in a book. It calls forth judgments, emotions, and complexities that you
only absorb through experience. Tacit knowledge doesn’t simply inform you, it makes you a better
person.
The basic difference is that explicit knowledge adds to what you know. Tacit knowledge, on the
other hand, transforms your identity. For example, you can know a lot about cooking but until you
have tacit knowledge, you can’t call yourself a chef. It’s learning to know versus learning to be.
Personal Knowledge

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The first kind of knowledge is personal knowledge, or knowledge by acquaintance. This is the kind of
knowledge that we are claiming to have when we say things like “I know Mozart’s music.”
Procedural Knowledge
The second kind of knowledge is procedural knowledge, or knowledge how to do something. People
who claim to know how to juggle, or how to drive, are not simply claiming that they understand the
theory involved in those activities. Rather, they are claiming that actually possess the skills involved,
that they are able to do these things.
Propositional Knowledge
The third kind of knowledge, the kind that philosophers care about most, is propositional
knowledge, or knowledge of facts. When we say things like “I know that the internal angles of a
triangle add up to 180 digress” or “I know that it was you that ate my sandwich”, we are claiming to
have propositional knowledge.
Topic:
Distinguish b/w KM foundation and KM solutions. What are the components of KM
foundation and KM solutions?
 Knowledge Management Foundation:
This "Framework for Knowledge Management Tools and Projects" describes information and
knowledge management solutions, which refer to the variety of ways in which information and
knowledge management can be facilitated.
Information management focuses on the effective management of information. Knowledge
management is described in this learning object as a strategy for creating an environment that
encourages using, generating, sharing, and exploiting knowledge.
Knowledge Management solutions include two components:
 Knowledge Management processes and
 Knowledge Management systems.
Knowledge Management solutions depend on three foundations:
 Knowledge Management infrastructure
 Knowledge Management mechanisms
 Knowledge Management technologies
Knowledge Management Solution:
In this section the various processes used to manage knowledge including processes for applying
knowledge, processes for capturing knowledge, processes for sharing knowledge, and processes for
creating knowledge will be discussed.
KM processes refer to the ways that an organization handles knowledge at various stages of its life
in an organization (KM cycle).
There are four main knowledge management processes, and each process comprises two sub-
processes:
 Knowledge discovery

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o Combination
o Socialization
 Knowledge capture
o Externalization
o Internalization
 Knowledge sharing
o Socialization
o Exchange
 Knowledge application
o Direction
o Routines
Topic:
Explain and discuss the differences b/w Business Intelligence and Knowledge
management?
Business Intelligence:
Generally, BI is considered to be a set of
tools and techniques applied to gather
data and transform it into information that can be used in
business analysis for the purposes of business development.
Every company gathers, collects, or to say more accurately, deals with a large amounts of data,
including various business documents, emails, newspaper articles, web pages, reports, contracts,
technical journals and reviews, spreadsheets, graphs and charts and other relevant sources of
business data.
BI technologies usually deal with large amounts of unstructured data via the use of data
warehousing and online analytical processing (OLAP).
All these data needs to be organized and validated – prepared for business analytics.
Thus,
“BI is about providing the right data at the right time to the right people so that they can take the
right decisions.”
Knowledge management:
Knowledge Management can be defined in many ways as
it spans many multi-disciplinary
approaches – content management,
collaboration, the science of
organizational behavior, analyses like
observation of trends and appearance
of anomalies, clustering, classification,
summarization, taxonomy building
and so on. This is probably one of the widely quoted definitions (Davenport, 1994), yet simple and to
the point: “Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using

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knowledge.” KM refers to a set of techniques used to capture, share, and use the information
available in order to achieve business objectives and to aid in business decision making based on
business analytics. There has been immense growth in the domain of knowledge management in the
last decade and new applications and solutions that empower knowledge sharing and knowledge
management have appeared.
Topic:
How is socialization used for knowledge discovery and knowledge sharing.?
Expalin and discuss
Knowledge discovery may be defined as the development of new tacit or explicit knowledge from
data and information or from the synthesis of prior knowledge. The discovery of new explicit
knowledge relies most directly on combination, whereas the discovery of new tacit knowledge relies
most directly on socialization.
New explicit knowledge is discovered through combination, wherein the multiple bodies of explicit
knowledge (data and/or information) are synthesized to create new, more complex sets of explicit
knowledge. This happens through communication, integration, and systemization of multiple
streams of explicit knowledge. Existing explicit knowledge, data and information are reconfigured,
categorized, and re contextualized to produce new explicit knowledge.
Example: Data mining techniques may be used to uncover new relationships among explicit data
that may be lead to create predictive or categorization models that create new knowledge
In the case of tacit knowledge, the integration of multiple streams for the creation of new
knowledge occurs through the mechanism of socialization. Socialization is the synthesis of tacit
knowledge across individuals, usually through joint activities rather than written or verbal
instructions.
Topic:
Explain knowledge management solutions in detail with logical reasoning?
Knowledge Management Solution:
In this section the various processes used to manage knowledge including processes for applying
knowledge, processes for capturing knowledge, processes for sharing knowledge, and processes for
creating knowledge will be discussed.
KM processes refer to the ways that an organization handles knowledge at various stages of its life
in an organization (KM cycle).
There are four main knowledge management processes, and each process comprises two sub-
processes:
 Knowledge discovery
o Combination
o Socialization
 Knowledge capture
o Externalization
o Internalization
 Knowledge sharing
o Socialization

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o Exchange
 Knowledge application
o Direction
o Routines
Example:
Feedback database - A company may have a database of feedback from customers and employees
and shares this feedback with their design and research and development departments. All
members of the organization would be able to enter feedback into the database and an integrated
approach would be taken to understanding the shared information.
Topic:
Briefly explain four kinds of process supported classifications for knowledge
management system:
Knowledge Management Systems are the integration of technologies and mechanisms that are
developed to support the four KM processes (discovery, capture, sharing, application).
Knowledge Management Systems can be classified into four:
A. Knowledge Discovery Systems
B. Knowledge Capture Systems
C. Knowledge Sharing Systems
D. Knowledge Application Systems
 Knowledge Discovery Systems
Knowledge Discovery Systems support the process of developing new tacit or explicit knowledge
from data and information or from the synthesis of prior knowledge. These systems support two KM
sub processes associated with knowledge discovery combination, enabling the discovery of new
explicit knowledge; and socialization, enabling the discovery of new tacit knowledge.
 Knowledge Capture Systems
Knowledge Capture Systems support the process of retrieving either explicit or tacit knowledge that
resides within people, artifacts, or organizational entities. These systems can help capture
knowledge that resides within or outside organizational boundaries including within consultants,
competitors, customers, suppliers, and prior employers of the organization's new employees.
 Knowledge Sharing Systems
Knowledge Sharing Systems support the process through which explicit or tacit knowledge is
communicated to other individuals.
 Knowledge Application Systems
Knowledge Application Systems support the process through which some individuals utilize
knowledge possessed by other individuals without actually acquiring, or learning, that knowledge.
Topic:
State the importance of KM with specific reference to its impact on employee’s
adaptability and job satisfaction:
KM Impacts

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KM solutions and knowledge can have impacts on the organization performance and the impacts
can be on the following:
(i) People, (ii) Processes, (iii) Products and (iv) Organizational performance
 KM Impacts on People
KM can have the following impacts on people:
- KM can facilitate employee learning,
- KM can facilitate employee adaptability and cause employees to become more flexible and
- KM can also enhance employee job satisfaction.
 KM Impacts on Employee Learning
This can be accomplished through:
- Externalization, e.g., writing a report on lessons learned from a project;
- Internalization, e.g., when employees preparing for a later project, can read it;
- Socialization, e.g., through joint activities, such as, meetings or informal chats;
- Communities of Practice - an organic and self-organized group of individuals who are dispersed
geographically or organizationally, but communicate regularly to discuss issues of mutual interest
 KM Impacts on Employee Adaptability
The KM can impact employee adaptability as follows:
- Employees are likely to adapt, when they interact with each other.
- They are more likely to accept change and
- They are more prepared to respond to change and less likely to be caught by surprise!
 KM Impacts on Employee Job Satisfaction
Recent study found that in organizations having more employees sharing knowledge with one
another, turnover rates were
reduced, thereby positively affecting
revenue and profit. Employees feel
better because of their knowledge
acquisition and skill enhancement.
Employees’ market value is enhanced
relative to other organizations’
employees.
KM also provides employees with
solutions to problems they face, in
case those same problems have been
encountered earlier, and effectively
addressed. Providing tried & tested solutions to the employees, amplifies employees’ effectiveness
in performing their jobs. Also helps provided by the organization, keep employees motivated.
Additional increases in employee job satisfaction derive from KM practices as follows:
- Mentoring and training are excellent motivators for employees.
- Communities of Practice provide intimate and socially validated control to the employees over
their own work practices.

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Topic:
How can knowledge management improve process of Effectiveness and
Efficiency Explain:
OR
In what way the knowledge management can create an impact on an
organization? Explain
Impact on Process Effectiveness
Knowledge management can enable organizations to become more effective by helping them to
select and perform the most appropriate processes. Effective knowledge management enables the
organization’s members to collect information needed to monitor external events. This results in
fewer surprises for the leaders of the organization and consequently reduces the need to modify
plans and settle for less effective approaches. In contrast, poor knowledge management can result
in mistakes by the organization because they risk repeating past mistakes or not foreseeing
otherwise obvious problems.
For example, Ford Motor Company and Firestone (now part of Bridgestone Corporation) incurred
numerous problems which may have been reduced through greater knowledge sharing, either by
exchanging explicit knowledge and information or by using meetings (and other means of
socialization) to share tacit knowledge. These firms did possess the necessary information to warn
them about
the mismatch of Ford Explorers and Firestone tires. However, the information was not integrated
across the two companies, which might have inhibited either company from having the “full
picture.” It is interesting to note that although Ford had a good knowledge management process it
was not used to manage the information and knowledge relating to the Ford Explorer and the
Firestone tires, or identify the potential risk of the tire’s tread peeling off, leading to tire
disintegration with the likelihood of accident in case the vehicle was then traveling at a high speed
(Stewart 2000). The result was significant loss in lives for their customers and unprecedented legal
liability.
Impact on Process Efficiency
Managing knowledge effectively can also enable organizations to be more productive and efficient.
Upon exploring the “black box” of knowledge sharing within Toyota Motor Corporation’s network,
Dyer and Nobeoka (2000, p. 364) found that “Toyota’s ability to effectively create and manage
network-level knowledge sharing processes, at least partially, explains the relative productivity
advantages enjoyed by Toyota and its suppliers.” Knowledge diffusion was found to occur more
quickly within Toyota’s production network than in competing automaker networks. This was
because Toyota’s network had solved three fundamental dilemmas with regard to knowledge
sharing by devising methods to: (1) motivate members to participate and openly share valuable
knowledge (while preventing undesirable spillovers to competitors); (2) prevent free riders—that is,
individuals who learn from others without helping others learn; and (3) reduce the costs associated
with finding and accessing different types of valuable knowledge.

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Topic:
Explain in detail all the reasons why organizations adopt knowledge
management.
An effective knowledge management strategy can provide a number of benefits in any
organizational setting, whether it’s a business or a community or an entire nation. It enables
individuals and organizations to better create, apply and transfer knowledge for a number of
reasons.
 A Foundation to Grow On
Managing knowledge with an effective strategy increases an organization’s potential for growth and
expansion to new markets. Growing and expanding an organization requires the ability to quickly
learn and adapt, which is much easier with the right knowledge systems in place. A strategy that
considers the right combination of methods, policies, principles, processes, strategies, technologies
and tools provides the kind of foundation that fosters growth well into the future.
 Faster Response Time
With an improved knowledge management system and strategy, your organization can respond
faster and make more effective decisions ahead of completion. This is because people will have
more direct access to the knowledge and tools they need, right when they need them, with a
sustainable strategy in place for managing knowledge in a way that benefits everyone most. A
multidisciplinary approach considers how the company, the customers, the employees, the industry
and the stakeholders interact with knowledge, what they want and need and how to best
manipulate knowledge resources to the benefit of everyone involved.
 Improved Products and Services
Improving an organization’s capabilities for collaborating and sharing knowledge, both in physical
and virtual environments, paves the way for continuous improvements in processes and end
products. By more effectively managing your organization’s knowledge resources, you can be more
innovative, which is the key ingredient for improving your product and service offerings. Technology
companies can develop smarter products, health care companies can provide better services,
research firms can explore new ideas, and the list goes on.
 Increased Return on Investment
Strategically managing knowledge enables organizations to be more profitable and add value to
their operation. By implementing a systematic and collaborative set of processes and
methodologies, organizations can be more productive and cut back on the number of mistakes that
hold them back. Without those roadblocks holding back the workflow, the organization can be more
innovative, efficient and ultimately profitable.
 Radical Cost Cutting
By streamlining knowledge management infrastructure and systematically reusing knowledge with a
multidisciplinary approach to content and information, organizations and individuals alike can work
more productively. An effective strategy allows organizations to manage their knowledge systems
more effectively, reduce inefficiencies and redundancies and provide more convenient access to
information. All this adds up to radical cost savings both immediately and in the future. Most

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importantly, an effective strategy will consider what works and what doesn’t, where knowledge is
being used inefficiently and where improvements are needed most urgently.
Topic:
What are some of the limitations of knowledge management systems?
There are some practical limitations to the development of knowledge application systems. These
relate to the fact that most of these systems are developed to serve a task-specific domain problem
and are typically not integrated with the organization’s enterprise systems. Other limitations also
exist—for example, for knowledge application systems based on CBR technologies, the following
limitations apply.
Security:
Cases may include sensitive information. Knowledge application systems must consider the
incorporation of security measures, including access control according to the user’s organizational
role. If knowledge application systems do not incorporate security measures, systems may not
realize their maximum value.
 Scalability:
Knowledge application systems must represent a large enough number of cases so that the majority
of the new experiences are represented in the case-based system. This means the knowledge
application system must reach saturation prior to its deployment. Reaching system saturation
means that most typical cases would have already been reported in the system. The number of
cases necessary to reach the saturation point changes according to the domain. For SQUAD,
discussed earlier, reaching this point required the inclusion of about 3,000 cases each year, a
number that later was reduced to 1,000 per year. The more complex the domain, the higher the
importance of keeping the growth of the case base viable. Clearly, the continual growth of the case
library will also require the use of complex indexing schemes, which may result in decreased system
stability.
3. Speed:
As the size of the case library grows to a more comprehensive representation of real environments,
computing and searching costs will also increase. Therefore, developers of knowledge application
systems must consider the use of complex indexing schemes that will guarantee acceptable case-
retrieval times and performance levels.
Topic:
Elaborate upon variants of case base reasoning (CBR) system:
Case-based reasoning (CBR), broadly construed, is the process of solving new problems based on
the solutions of similar past problems. An auto mechanic who fixes an engine by recalling
another car that exhibited similar symptoms is using case-based reasoning.
Case-based reasoning has been formalized for purposes of computer reasoning as a four-step
process
1. Retrieve:

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Given a target problem, retrieve from memory cases relevant to solving it. A case consists of a
problem, its solution, and, typically, annotations about how the solution was derived. For
example, suppose Fred wants to prepare blueberry pancakes. Being a novice cook, the most
relevant experience he can recall is one in which he successfully made plain pancakes. The
procedure he followed for making the plain pancakes, together with justifications for
decisions made along the way, constitutes Fred's retrieved case.
2. Reuse:
Map the solution from the previous case to the target problem. This may involve adapting the
solution as needed to fit the new situation. In the pancake example, Fred must adapt his
retrieved solution to include the addition of blueberries.
3. Revise:
Having mapped the previous solution to the target situation, test the new solution in the real
world (or a simulation) and, if necessary, revise. Suppose Fred adapted his pancake solution
by adding blueberries to the batter. After mixing, he discovers that the batter has turned blue
– an undesired effect. This suggests the following revision: delay the addition of blueberries
until after the batter has been ladled into the pan.
4. Retain:
After the solution has been successfully adapted to the target problem, store the resulting
experience as a new case in memory. Fred, accordingly, records his new-found procedure for
making blueberry pancakes, thereby enriching his set of stored experiences, and better
preparing him for future pancake-making demands.
Topic:
What do you understand by knowledge sharing? What are the different barriers
to the use of knowledge management system?
Knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge (namely, information, skills, or expertise)
is exchanged among people, friends, families, communities (for example, Wikipedia), or
organizations.
Following are the barriers of Knowledge management system:
 Integration of KM strategy and sharing initiatives into the company’s goals and strategic
approach is missing or unclear;
 Lack of leadership and managerial direction in terms of clearly communicating the benefits
and values of knowledge sharing practices;
 Shortage of formal and informal spaces to share, reflect and generate (new) knowledge;
 Lack of transparent rewards and recognition systems that would motivate people to share
more of their knowledge;
 Existing corporate culture does not provide sufficient support for sharing practices;
 Deficiency of company resources that would provide adequate sharing opportunities;
 Communication and knowledge flows are restricted into certain directions (e.g. Top-down)
 Lack of integration of IT systems and processes impedes on the way people do things;

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 Lack of technical support (internal and external) and immediate maintenance of integrated IT
systems obstructs work routines and communication flows;
 Unrealistic expectations of employees as to what technology can do and cannot do;
 Lack of compatibility between diverse IT systems and processes;
 Mismatch between individuals’ need requirements and integrated IT systems and processes
restrict sharing practices
 General lack of time to share knowledge, and time to identify colleagues in need of specific
knowledge;
 Apprehension of fear that sharing may reduce or jeopardize people’s job security;
 Low awareness and realization of the value and benefit of possessed knowledge to others;
 Dominance in sharing explicit over tacit knowledge such as know-how and experience that
requires hands-on learning, observation, dialogue and interactive problem solving
Topic:
Explain and discuss the concept of Context Based Reasoning:
Context-based Reasoning helps to model this behavioral phenomenon. Context-based
Reasoning is a human behavior representation paradigm specifically designed to effectively
represent human tactical behavior (Gonzalez et al. 2008). Tactical behavior is defined as: “the
continuous and dynamic process of decision making by a performing agent (human or
otherwise) who interacts with his/its environment while attempting to carry out a mission in
that environment” (Gonzalez et al. 1998, 2002, 2008). In this sense tactical knowledge is
associated with assessing a current situation, selecting a plan to address the current
situation, and executing that plan. Tactical experts recognize and treat only the salient
features of the situation and thus are able to abstract a small, but important portion of the
available inputs for general knowledge
1. A tactical situation calls for a set of actions and procedures that properly address the
current situation. In the case of a driver, for example, these actions could include maintaining
the car in its proper lane, stopping at a stop sign, and not exceeding the speed limit (by
much). The set of actions and procedures is described as the context.
2. As the situation evolves, a transition to another context or set of actions and procedures
may be required to address the new situation. For example, when a driver exits an interstate
highway onto a city street, a different set of functions and procedures will be necessary to
manage this new situation. In addition, one must be aware of cross traffic, traffic lights, and
so
forth that would not have to be considered when driving on an interstate highway.
3. What is likely to happen in a context or current situation is limited by the context itself.
Continuing with the same example, one would not have to worry about operating the cruise
control while waiting at a traffic light.
Topic:

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What is concept map? Explain in your words:
A concept map is a type of graphic organizer used to help students organize and represent
knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to
show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.
Benefits of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping serves several purposes for learners:
 Helping students brainstorm and generate new ideas
 Encouraging students to discover new concepts and the propositions that connect them
 Allowing students to more clearly communicate ideas, thoughts and information
 Helping students integrate new concepts with older concepts
 Enabling students to gain enhanced knowledge of any topic and evaluate the information
How to Build a Concept Map?
Concept maps are typically hierarchical, with the subordinate concepts stemming from the main
concept or idea. This type of graphic organizer however, always allows change and new concepts to
be added. The Rubber Sheet Analogy states that concept positions on a map can continuously
change, while always maintaining the same relationship with the other ideas on the map.
Start with a main idea, topic, or issue to focus on.
A helpful way to determine the context of your concept map is to choose a focus question—
something that needs to be solved or a conclusion that needs to be reached. Once a topic or
question is decided on, that will help with the hierarchical structure of the concept map.
Then determine the key concepts
Find the key concepts that connect and relate to your main idea and rank them; most general,
inclusive concepts come first, then link to smaller, more specific concepts.
Finish by connecting concepts--creating linking phrases and words
Once the basic links between the concepts are created, add cross-links, which connect concepts in
different areas of the map, to further illustrate the relationships and strengthen student’s
understanding and knowledge on the topic.
Topic:
Discuss the role that communities of practice play in sharing tacit knowledge:
Communities of practice is a term originally developed by Lave and Wenger. It describes a learning
theory with a strong relationship to the social construction of knowledge. The community of practice
(sometimes incorrectly referred to as "communities of practices") consists of members who interact
with each other for their pursuit of a common practice. It is therefore this collective social practice
that links individuals together across official organizational boundaries and departments, and makes
up the community.
The Implications to KM
Botha et al (2008) summarize the key factors regarding communities of practice as follows:
 Learning is a social phenomenon
 Knowledge is integrated into the culture, values, and language of the community
 Learning and community membership are inseparable
 We learn by doing and therefore knowledge and practice are inseparable.

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 Empowerment is key to learning: The best learning environments are created when there are
real consequences to the individual and his community of practice.
Management must understand the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of communities of
practice. For example, because they are so loosely defined it may be very hard to identify them
when a problem needs to be solved- to resolve this some companies today are mapping their
communities of practice (Botha 2008). Another issue could be the problem of transferring and
combining knowledge across the firm. Due to the close ties to "doing" as well as the cultural
elements, this may require innovative solutions- e.g. using temporary cross functional project teams
that can leverage knowledge from different areas, apply it, learn, and the redistribute the new
knowledge back into the individual members' communities.
Topic:
List and discuss the different types of knowledge sharing system:
Knowledge sharing systems are classified according to their attributes. These specific types of
knowledge sharing systems include:
1. Incident report databases
2. Alert systems
3. Best practices databases
4. Lessons learned systems
5. Expertise locator systems
Incident Report Databases
Incident report databases are used to disseminate information related to incidents or malfunctions,
for example, of field equipment (like sensing equipment outages) or software (like bug reports).
Incident reports typically describe the incident together with explanations of the incident, although
they may not suggest any recommendations. Incident reports are typically used in the context of
safety and accident investigations.
Alert Systems
Alert systems were originally intended to disseminate information about a negative experience that
has occurred or is expected to occur. However, recent applications also include increasing exposure
to positive experiences. Alert systems could be used to report problems experienced with a
technology, such as an alert system that issues recalls for consumer products. Alert systems could
also be used to share more positive experiences, such as Grants.gov, which offers registered users
alerts to funding opportunities that match a set of user-specified keywords. Alert systems could be
applicable to a single organization or to a set of related organizations that share the same
technology and suppliers.
Lessons Learned Systems (LLS)
The goal of lessons learned systems is “to capture and provide lessons that can benefit employees
who encounter situations that closely resemble a previous experience in a similar situation” (Weber
et al. 2001). LLS could be pure repositories of lessons or be sometimes intermixed with other
sources of information.
Best Practices Databases

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Best practices databases describe successful efforts, typically from the re-engineering of business
processes (O’Leary 1999) that could be applicable to organizational processes. Best practices differ
from lessons learned in that they capture only successful events, which may not be derived from
experience. Best practices are expected to represent business practices that are applicable to
multiple organizations in the same sector and are sometimes used to benchmark organizational
processes.
Expertise locator systems
Several different business organizations have identified the need to develop expertise locator
systems (ELS) to help locate intellectual capital (Becerra-Fernandez 2006). The main motives for
seeking an expert are as a source of information and as someone who can perform a given
organizational or social function. The intent when developing these systems is to catalog knowledge
competencies, including information not typically captured by human resources systems, in a way
that could later be queried across the organization
Topic:
What is the role of web in knowledge discovery? Explain web mining techniques
briefly
Knowledge discovery technologies can facilitate socialization and combination within or across
organizations. Knowledge Creation Systems can be enabled by the use of data mining (DM)
technologies. Technologies to discover knowledge can be very powerful for organizations.
Business organizations can profit greatly from mining the Web. There are three types of uses for
Web data mining
Web Structure Mining
Web Structure Mining examines how the Web documents are structured and attempts to discover
the model underlying the link structures of the Web. This is useful to categorize Web pages, and to
generate relationships and similarities among Web sites.
Web Usage Mining
Web Usage Mining, also known as clickstream analysis, involves identification of patterns in user
navigation through Web pages in a domain. Web Usage Mining tries to discover knowledge about
the Web surfer's behaviors through analysis of their interactions with the Web site including the
mouse clicks, user, queries, and transactions. Web Usage Mining includes three main tasks:
preprocessing, pattern discovery and pattern analysis.
Web Content Mining
Web Content Mining is used to discover what a Web page is about and how to uncover new
knowledge from it.
Customer relationship management (CRM) is the mechanisms and technologies used to manage the
interactions between a company and its customers. Database marketers were the early adopters of
CRM software, in order to automate the process of customer interaction.
Topic:
Information technology plays an important role in the KM of today’s
organization. Critically discuss this statement.

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Information Technology (IT) is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce,
manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information.
Importance of IT in KM:
 There is an ongoing lively debate about the role that information technology can play for
knowledge management. On the one hand, information technology is used pervasively in
organizations, and thus qualifies as a natural medium for the flow of knowledge.
 A recent study from the American Productivity and Quality Center shows that organizations
embarking in knowledge management efforts generally rely, for accomplishing their goals, on
the setting up of a suitable IT infrastructure (AP&QC 1997).
 At the other end of the spectrum, leading knowledge management theorists have warned
about the attitude that drives management towards strong investments in IT, possibly at the
expense of investments in human capital.
 Social networking websites like Facebook permit users to keep in touch with friends and
families around the globe.
 Communication between the companies in different countries is possible Via skype,
WhatsApp and MSN.
 Multimedia CD and DVD Roms of encyclopedia
 Up to Date Wikipedia
 IT enables many services like
 Internet Banking
 Online Ticket Booking
 E- Commerce
 The list goes on
Topic:
What are the barriers to the use of Knowledge discovery system? Discuss some
of them
Possibly two of the barriers that prevented earlier deployment of knowledge discovery in the
business arena, versus what we have witnessed in the scientific realm, relate to the prior lack of
data in business to support the analysis and the limited computing power to perform the
mathematical calculations required by the DM algorithms.
Scaling analysis to large databases
Current DM techniques require that data sets be loaded into the computer’s memory to be
manipulated. This requirement offers a significant barrier when very large databases and data
warehouses must be scanned to identify patterns.
Scaling to high-dimensional data and models:
Typical statistical analysis studies require humans to formulate a model and then use techniques to
validate the model via understanding how well the data fit the model. But it may be increasingly
difficult for humans to formulate models a priori based on a very large number of variables, which
increasingly add dimension to the problem. Models that seek to understand customer behavior in

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retail or Web- based transactions may fall in this category. Current solutions require humans to
formulate a lower dimensional abstraction of the model, which may be easier for humans to
understand.
Automating the search:
DM studies typically require the researcher to enumerate the hypothesis under study a priori. In the
future, DM algorithms may be able to perform this work automatically.
Finding patterns and models understandable and interesting to users:
In the past, DM projects focused on measures of accuracy (how well the model predicts the data)
and utility (the benefit derived from the pattern, typically money saved). New benefit measures like
understandability of the model and novelty of the results must also be developed. Also DM
techniques are expected to incorporate the generation of meaningful reports resulting from the
study.
Topic:
Describe and explain the difference between Wikis and Blogs:
 Blogs:
Blogs (a contraction between Web and log) refer to a form of online digital diary and in essence is a
Web site where an individual makes regular written journal entries that comprise a statement of
opinion, a story, an analysis, description of events, or other material. Blogs typically display an entry
in reverse chronological order, with the most recent entries at the top. Blogging techniques offer
tremendous opportunities for businesses. For example, firms can take advantage of Web 2.0
technologies such as blogs for agile new product development.
 Wikis:
According to Wikipedia, one of the best-known wikis, a wiki “is a page or collection of Web pages
designed to enable anyone who accesses it to contribute or modify content, using a simplified
markup language. Wikis are often used to create collaborative Web sites and to power community
Web sites.” Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that was launched on January 10, 2001.
Wikipedia grew to approximately 20,000 articles, by the end of 2001, and 18 language editions—
numbers that would grow to 2 million and 161 respectively by 2004. Articles in Wikipedia do not go
through a formal peer-review process and are created by its users, who volunteer endless hours to
create or edit articles. One of the interesting characteristics of Wikipedia is that it fosters a
cooperative and helpful culture among its users, since articles that annoy others can easily be erased
by one click therefore offering an opportunity for reaching decisions based on consensus among
community members.
 Social Networking:
Social networking is the use of internet-based social media programs to make connections with
friends, family, classmates, customers and clients. Social networking can occur for social purposes,

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business purposes or both through sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Classmates.com and
Yelp. Social networking is also a significant target area for marketers seeking to engage users.
Topic: Identify and discuss any one issue you consider most important for
the future of KM and why:
In its basic form, knowledge management is about converting available raw data into
understandable information. The information is then placed in a reusable repository for the benefit
of any future need based on similar kinds of experiences. Knowledge management contributes
towards streamlining the ideas problems, projects and deployment driving towards productivity.
But, it’s more than just knowing everything your organization knows, it’s creating a synthesis
between the people and the information to the point that the whole is more than the sum of the
parts.
Today's Knowledge Management Challenges
1. Security. Providing the right level of security for knowledge management is key. Sensitive
information should be shielded from most users, while allowing easy access to those with the
proper credentials.
2. Getting people motivated. Overcoming organizational culture challenges and developing a
culture that embraces learning, sharing, changing, improving can’t be done with technology.
There is no use in launching a tool if there is no drive to share the knowledge.
3. Keeping up with technology. Determining how knowledge should be dispensed and
transferring it quickly and effectively is a huge challenge. Constantly changing structures
mean learning how to be smart, quick, agile and responsive – all things a KM tool must be
able to accomplish.
4. Measuring knowledge. Knowledge is not something that can be easily quantified, and is far
more complex because it is derived out of human relationships and experience. The focus
should be on shared purpose rather than results or efforts.
5. Overcoming shared leadership. KM tools allow others to emerge as voices of power within
an organization. Workers are given a “voice”, which can sometimes cause internal conflict.
6. Keeping data accurate. Valuable data generated by a group within an organization may need
to be validated before being harvested and distributed. Keeping information current by
eliminating wrong or old ideas is a constant battle.
Overcoming Knowledge Management Challenges
Knowledge, learning and sharing come from people and their relationships with one another, not
necessarily from the tools, databases and technological aids used. However, with the proper
technology in place you can facilitate better communication and overcome these challenges to have
an up-to-date, secure and organized knowledge base.
Topic:
Discuss in detail the importance of knowledge management assessment:
 A KM assessment helps identify the contributions being currently made by KM. It helps
answer the question: Is KM improving the individual’s or the organization’s ability to perform
various tasks and thereby enhancing efficiency, effectiveness, and/or innovativeness?

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 A KM assessment enhances the understanding of the quality of the efforts being put into KM
as well as the intellectual capital produced through these efforts. It helps answer the
questions: Are the KM solutions being employed adequate for the needs of the individual or
the organization? Do these efforts produce the intellectual capital required to perform
individual or organizational tasks?
 A KM assessment helps understand whether the costs of the KM efforts are justified by the
benefits they produce. It helps answer the question: Do the direct and indirect benefits from
KM together exceed or equal the various costs incurred? This is an important benefit for the
overall KM solutions as well as the solutions pursued in a specific KM project. Thus, the
overall KM solutions as well as specific KM projects can be cost-justified through careful KM
assessment.
 A KM assessment helps recognize the gaps that need to be addressed in the KM efforts by
individuals or the organization. It helps answer the question: What kind of potentially
valuable KM solutions do the individual and the organization currently lack? What potentially
important knowledge is not adequately supported by the KM efforts?
 Finally, a KM assessment can also help in making a business case to senior executives in an
organization for additional investments in KM efforts.
Topic:
Give a detailed explanation on promoting knowledge sharing while
protecting intellectual property:
Knowledge sharing could also bring forth certain risks, namely that the knowledge falls into the
wrong hands either maliciously or accidentally. The same communication technologies that support
the sharing of knowledge within an organization also enable the knowledge to leak outside the
organization to its competing firms. Given the value of the knowledge, and the reliance that an
organization places on this knowledge, losing this knowledge could have severe negative
consequences for the organization. It is therefore critical for organizations to manage knowledge
such that knowledge sharing is enhanced but knowledge leakage is controlled. This is not an easy
balance to achieve. Below we discuss some of the ways in which knowledge leakage can be
controlled.
Intellectual property (IP) can be defined as any results of a human intellectual process that
has inherent value to the individual or organization that sponsored the process. It includes
inventions, designs, processes, organizational structures, strategic plans, marketing plans, computer
programs, algorithms, literary works, music scores, and works of art, among many other things. KM
enables the effective use of IP, but it could also lead to loss of IP, which can damage the organization
just as much as losing real capital property. In fact, in many cases IP is an organization’s most
valuable asset.
organizations often capture knowledge from documents stored in Web-based repositories. The
more modifiable this knowledge is and the more it is documented and distributed, the greater the
risk of losing this knowledge. IP losses can happen in many ways including the following:

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1. Employee turnover. The employee may leave the organization to be hired by a competitor. The
employee may deliberately or accidentally share her knowledge with her new employer.
2. Physical theft of sensitive proprietary documents, either by outsiders or by insiders.
3. Inadvertent disclosure to third parties without a nondisclosure agreement.
4. Reverse engineering or close examination of company’s products.
5. The Web repository security is breached, and unauthorized access to the proprietary
documents takes place.
6. Unauthorized parties intercept electronic mail, fax, telephone conversation, or other
communications for the purpose of illicitly acquiring knowledge.
7. Attempts by insiders or outsiders to corrupt documents or databases with false data,
information, or knowledge. This could be done directly via hacking into a database and effecting
unauthorized modifications or indirectly via a virus. This is a variation of the electronic breach of
data problem in item 5, but it is somewhat different in that the actions can destroy the system in
question. There are significant criminal implications with this act.
Topic:
How different impacts of knowledge management on employees can be
assessed? Briefly discuss
 Assessment of Impacts on Employees
KM can impact an organization’s employees by facilitating their learning from each other, from prior
experiences of former employees, and from external sources. KM can also enable employees to
become more flexible by enhancing their awareness of new ideas, which prepares them to respond
to changes and also by making them more likely to accept change. These impacts, in turn, can cause
the employees to feel more satisfied with their jobs due to the knowledge acquisition and skill
enhancement and their enhanced market value. Thus, KM can enhance learning, adaptability, and job
satisfaction of employees.
Employee learning
 Average amount of time annually spent by an employee in being trained
 Average number of conferences or seminars annually attended by each employee
 Average amount of time annually spent by an employee in training others within the
organization
 Average of employees’ annual assessment of their learning during the year
Employee adaptability
 Proportion of employees who have worked in another area (other than the area in which they
currently work) for more than one year
 Average number of areas in which each employee has previously worked
 Number of countries in which each senior manager has worked as a proportion of the total
number of countries in which the organization conducts business
Employee job satisfaction
 Proportion of employees who express high level of satisfaction with the
 organization and their jobs
 Percentage of critical employees retained during the previous year

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 Percentage of openings requiring advanced degrees or substantial experience filled in the
previous year
Topic:
What is contingency view of knowledge management? explain and discuss
A universalistic view of knowledge management would imply that there is a single best approach of
managing knowledge, which should be adopted by all organizations in all circumstances. This seems
to be implicit in the literature on knowledge management; for example, knowledge sharing is
recommended as being useful to all organizations, although we believe that the use of direction may
sometimes represent an equally effective but more efficient alternative. In contrast to this
universalistic view, contingency theory, which has previously been used, for example, in the
literature on organization design, suggests that no one approach is best under all circumstances.
Whereas a universalistic view focuses on identifying a single path to successful performance, a
contingency theory considers the path to success to include multiple alternative paths with success
being achieved only when the appropriate path is selected. For instance, an organization design with
few rules or procedures is considered appropriate for small organizations, whereas one with extensive
rules and procedures is recommended for large organizations.
Topic: Explain ant Two of the followings:
01): Socialization and Combination in context of knowledge discovery:
Combination
New explicit knowledge is discovered through combination, wherein the multiple bodies of explicit
knowledge (and/or data and/or information) are synthesized to create new, more complex sets of
explicit knowledge. Through communication, integration, and systemization of multiple streams of
explicit knowledge, new explicit knowledge is created—either incrementally or radical. Existing
explicit knowledge, data, and information are reconfigured, re categorized and re contextualized to
produce new explicit knowledge.

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Socialization
Socialization is the synthesis of tacit knowledge across individuals, usually through joint activities
rather than written or verbal instructions. For example, by transferring ideas and images,
apprenticeships help newcomers to see how others think.
02): Internalization and Externalization in context of knowledge capturing:
Externalization involves converting tacit knowledge into explicit forms such as
words, concepts, visuals, or figurative language. It helps translate individuals’ tacit knowledge into
explicit forms that can be more easily understood by the rest of their group. This is a difficult process
because tacit knowledge is often difficult to articulate.
Internalization is the conversion of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. It represents the
traditional notion of learning. The explicit knowledge may be embodied in action and practice so that
the individual acquiring the knowledge can re-experience what others have gone through.
Alternatively, individuals could acquire tacit knowledge in virtual situations, either vicariously by
reading manuals or others’ stories or experientially through simulations or experiments. An
example of internalization is a new software consultant reading a book on innovative software
development and learning from it. This learning helps the consultant, and her organization, capture
the knowledge contained in the book.
03): Socialization and Exchange in context of knowledge sharing
Exchange, in contrast to socialization, focuses on the sharing of explicit knowledge. It is used to
communicate or transfer explicit knowledge among individuals, groups, and organizations. In its basic
nature, the process of exchange of explicit knowledge does not differ from the process through which
information is communicated. An example of exchange is a product design manual being transferred
by one employee to another, who can then use the explicit knowledge contained in the manual.
Exchanging a document could also be used to transfer information.
Socialization
Socialization is the synthesis of tacit knowledge across individuals, usually through joint activities
rather than written or verbal instructions. For example, by transferring ideas and images,
apprenticeships help newcomers to see how others think.
04): Routine and direction in context of knowledge application:
Routines involve the utilization of knowledge fixed in procedures, rules, and norms that guide future
behavior. Routines economize on communication more than directions as they are embedded in
procedures or technologies. However, they take time to develop, relying on constant repetition.
Routines could be automated through the use of IT, such as in systems that provide help desk
agents, field engineers, consultants, and customer end users with specific and automated answers
from a knowledge base.

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Direction refers to the process through which the individual possessing the knowledge directs the
action of another individual without transferring to that individual the knowledge underlying the
direction. Direction involves the transfer of instructions or decisions and not the transfer of the
knowledge required to make those decisions, and hence it has been labeled as knowledge
substitution. This preserves the advantages of specialization and avoids the difficulties inherent in
the transfer of tacit knowledge. Direction is the process used when a production worker calls an
expert to ask her how to solve a particular problem with a machine and then proceeds to solve the
problem based on the instructions given by the expert

Ch Muhammad Irfan +92-345-4426176 facebook.com/chmuhammedirfan skype
id: ch.irfan786

Knowledge management

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