Smart Cities Enable Urban Environmental Management in Asia and the Pacific Region: Problems, Challenges and Prospects

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SMART CITIES ENABLE URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN ASIA
AND THE PACIFIC REGION: PROBLEMS, CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS
Dr.Choen Krainara
Urban Innovation and Sustainability Academic Program
School of Environment, Resources and Development
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
7 June 2022
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The world is currently experiencing rapid urbanization phenomena as 4.46 billion people or
55 % of the world population live in urban areas globally, and it will grow to 6.68 billion or
68% of population by 2050, adding about 2.50 billion people more to urban areas
(United Nations, 2018). Also, the Asian continent is projected to become the fastest urbanizing
region in the world with as much as 3.39 billion population or 64% of population living in urban
areas by 2050 as the poor continue to be drawn to better opportunities. In Asia and the Pacific
region, cities generate over 80 per cent of gross domestic product in many countries and are
engines of economic growth that have lifted millions from poverty (UNEP, 2022). This
economic growth is accelerating rural to urban migration. Currently, approximately 700 million
people live in urban slum.
As a result, cities, as the hub of human innovation and advancement, face critical changes in
their fundamental role especially on inefficient resource-use patterns. As a result, cities are the
centerpiece where such issues need to be addressed. The quality and efficiency of Asian and
Pacific cities will determine the region’s long-term productivity and overall stability. However,
inefficiencies, such as unmet demand for urban services (water, energy, and transport), and
huge financing requirements hamper economic growth and impede inclusive development,
trapping the poor in slums. City pollution—air pollution and ineffective wastewater treatment
and solid waste management—remains a constant problem. Asia Pacific cities contributes
enormously towards the emission of greenhouse gases. They are also highly vulnerable to the
consequences of climate change, including flooding, landslides, heat waves, and drought. These
urban challenges have very significant impacts on the national economies (UNEP, 2022).
Technologically, cities have been radically transformed since the first industrialization wave.
Along with the fourth Industrial Revolution (IR) and digital technologies-driven, Smart Cities
are expected to replace the traditional cities, whose success was built on hard infrastructures
like roads, water systems, and sanitation systems. Through a smart city, theglobal community
has strived to converge and integrate environmental, digital, bio, and financial technologies to
solve various urban problems. Therefore, the objective of this Chapter is to document how
countries in Asia and the Pacific region adopt and apply smart city concept into practice for
solving a range of urban problems and addressing challenges in order to enable sustainable
urban environmental management in the context of climate change towards Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) for cities. This Chapter consists of 4 sections, namely (1)
introduction; (2) emerging critical problems, risks, challenges on urban environmental
management and urban opportunity for sustainable development in the context of climate
change in Asia and the Pacific region; (3) progress of implementing Sustainable Development
Goals on the targets of sustainable cities and communities in Asia and Pacific region; (4)
promoting smart cities for enabling sustainable urban environmental management and

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sustainable urban development and planning in the context of climate change in Asia and the
Pacific region; and (5) conclusions and recommendations.
9.2 EMERGING CRITICAL PROBLEMS, RISKS, AND CHALLENGES ON URBAN
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND URBAN OPPORTUNITIES FOR
SUSTIAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION
This section presents emerging critical problems, risks and challenges on urban environmental
management, and urban opportunity for sustainable development in the context of climate
change in Asia and the Pacific region. The details of this section are as follows:
9.2.1 Emerging Critical Problems on Urban Environmental Management in Asia and
the Pacific Region
This section contains a description of the pressing environmental problems linked to pollution
and waste, including issues related to air pollution, that threaten sustainable economic and
social development in the region as shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Regional trends in pollution and waste in Asia and the Pacific region
Source: UNESCAP, (2018).
Due to rapidly increasing urbanization, 7 critical urban environmental problems have emerged
in Asia and the Pacific region as follows:
9.2.1.1 Air Pollution
Air pollution is a serious public health crisis across Asia and the Pacific region–and the health
risks affect everyone. Approximately 7 million people worldwide die prematurely each year
from air pollution related diseases, with about 4 million of these deaths occurring in Asia and

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the Pacific region. Only 8 per cent of people in Asia and the Pacific region are exposed to air
pollution levels that do not pose a significant risk to their health, according to the WHO
Guideline (UNEP, 2019).
Latest data on air quality show that 97 per cent of cities in low- and middle-income countries
with more than 100,000 inhabitants do not meet WHO air quality guidelines.
Particulate matter, a key indicator of air quality originates from emissions from electric power
plants, industrial facilities, transport vehicles, biomass burning and fossil fuels used in homes
and factories for heating. The region especially East Asia, the Pacific and South Asia witnessed
the sharpest increase in premature deaths as a result of ambient air pollution (PM2.5) between
1990 and 2015. A recent mapping study in China, for example, estimated that air pollution
contributed to 1.2 million to 2 million deaths per year owing to an accelerated rate of
industrialization and high dependency on fossil fuels for energy production and urban
transportation (UNESCAP, 2018). There is no comprehensive picture of air quality in Asia. At
best, research has found some changes in air quality in specific cities. These show
improvements in certain cities such as Bangkok, Colombo, Dhaka etc. but also serious decline
in air quality in cities such as Jakarta, Phnom Penh, Ulaanbaatar, etc. These declines are thought
to have occurred mostly because of increasing rates of vehicle ownership, high manufacturing
concentrations in inner city areas, together with the use of low-quality coal and wood in
cooking/heating stoves.
9.2.1.2 Traffic Congestion
The major cities that face high traffic congestion include Mumbi, was identified as the most
congested city in Asia followed by Bengaluru, Dhaka, New Delhi, Tokyo, Manila and Pune
(Kameke, 2022). Thus, Allied Market Research (2022) indicated that there is a rise in demand
for smart transportation network, which is expected to help reduce traffic congestion and thus
enhance the safety, sustainability and efficiency of transportation network. There is a rapid
increase in the number of vehicles on the roads, which creates traffic congestion.
To alleviate traffic congestion and urban air pollution, metro systems act as fast and efficient
transport systems for many modern metropolises. However, in Thailand access to such transit
arguably treats some vulnerable groups, especially women, the elderly and disabled people
unfairly. Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon (2012) assessed accessibility considerations to
scrutinize how user groups access metro services based on Bangkok Metropolitan Region an
empirical case with 600 individual passengers at various stations. It was found by user
disaggregated accessibility model that the lower the accessibility perceptions—related
uncomfortable and unsafe environment conditions, the greater the equitable access to services,
as illustrated by underground Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)—Hua Lumphong and MRT—
Petchaburi stations. The study suggested that, to balance the access priorities of groups on
services, policy actions should emphasize acceptably safe access for individuals, cost efficient
feeder services connecting the metro lines, socioeconomic influences and time allocation.
9.2.1.3 Clean Water Supply
Apart from drought and flooding, threats to water resources result from many factors, including
poor sanitation infrastructure, river pollution and ground water overuse. Currently, urban
authorities in Asia find it a challenge to maintain and/or replace older parts of water supply

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systems, many of which are plagued by major leakage that results in serious amounts of wasted
water.
9.2.1.4 Wastewater
A total of 80 to 90 per cent of all wastewater produced in Asia and the Pacific region was
released untreated in the past, with alarming situations in coastal zones of South and South-East
Asia. In 2011, only 21.3 per cent of total produced wastewater in South and South-West Asia
was treated. In 2012, 82 per cent and 84 per cent of wastewater in Pakistan and Armenia
respectively went back into ecosystems untreated. Singapore is one of the few countries with
significant advances in wastewater treatment: in 2015, recycled water treated using the
NEWater process met 30 per cent of drinking water demand, which is expected to increase to
50 per cent by 2060. Countries experiencing rapid economic growth and urbanization coupled
with a combination of water-related challenges related to access, depletion, pollution, sanitation
and disasters are highly vulnerable to water scarcity, impeding efforts to advance development
agendas.
Water scarcity reduces the availability of water for irrigation, impacting food security. It also
affects human health through the inability to deal with human waste, which, in turn, results in
contaminated water supplies and increased prevalence of waterborne pathogens. The recycling
of wastewater has a significant impact on relieving the pressure caused by insufficient water
resources. As of now, only a few Asian cities have the capacity or resources to set up large-
scale wastewater treatment facilities. This is considered a serious problem and improved
sanitation and wastewater treatment is a major issue in water management in Asia and the
Pacific region (UNESCAP, 2018).
9.2.1.5 Solid Waste and Plastic Pollution
With the increase in consumption of natural resources in Asia and the Pacific region, there has
been a rise in the generation of waste. Urban areas in the region generated about 1.37 million
tons of municipal solid waste a day in 2012. By 2025, this amount is expected to more than
double to 3 million tons, increasing the cost of waste management from $49 billion in 2012 to
$123 billion. The majority of growing Asian towns and cities use open dump sites and only
approximately 10 per cent of solid waste ends up in properly engineered and managed landfill
sites. Chemical production in the region is projected to increase by 46 per cent over the period
from 2012 to 2020 and the region generates 1 million tons of hazardous waste daily
(UNESCAP, 2018).Rapid industrialization, rising consumer demand and population growth in
the region demand improved management of chemicals and hazardous waste and regulation of
industrial and consumer chemicals and pesticides.
Asia generated 18.2 million tons of e-waste in 2016, growing by 63 per cent in five years in
East and South-East Asia (2010 to 2015), with the highest quantity of e-waste generated in
China (7.2 million tons).While some countries have passed legislation, the official collection
rate across the region lies at approximately 15 per cent and as low as 6 per cent in Pacific island
States. It is estimated that 95 per cent of plastic in the oceans is transported by 10 major rivers,
eight of which are in Asia and that Asian countries with fast growing markets and
underdeveloped waste management systems – including China, India, Indonesia, the
Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam –may be responsible for as much as 60 per cent of plastic
waste leakage. Of the approximately 8.3 billion tons of plastic produced over the past decades,

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only 9 per cent is recycled – 79 per cent accumulates in landfills or the natural environment,
and the remaining 12 per cent is incinerated – and approximately 13 million tons enter the ocean
annually, although this number may be much higher. Over 80 per cent of marine plastic waste
comes from land-based sources, making plastic the most common type of marine litter; 75 per
cent of the leakage that comes from land-based sources originates from uncollected waste, while
the remaining 25 per cent leaks from within the waste management system itself (UNESCAP,
2018).
While the health effects of plastic pollution in water, soil and the ocean remain under study,
plastic debris has been detected worldwide in all major marine habitats and is ingested by fish,
seabirds and marine mammals. Plastic fragments and attached toxins that are absorbed into
flesh could enter the human diet, presenting a potential underexplored health risk. The incidence
of food waste in industrialized Asia exceeds European levels and is high in cities across the
region. In low-income countries where rice is the dominant crop, such as in South and South-
East Asia, agricultural production and post-harvest handling and storage yield high food losses,
while approximately 40 per cent of food losses in industrialized countries occur at retail and
consumer levels. About half of global food loss and waste occurs in China, Japan and the
Republic of Korea (28 per cent) and in South and South-East Asia (23 per cent), although on a
per capita basis loss is lowest in South and South-East Asia. It is estimated that 15 to 50 per
cent of fruits and vegetables and 12 to 30 per cent of grains are lost between the producer and
the consumer.
9.2.1.6 Unsustainable Resource Use
All resource-use trends and patterns have a particular connection to urbanization. As Asia and
the Pacific region continues to urbanize, sustainable resource use and development depend
increasingly on the successful management of urban growth, especially in secondary cities,
where the most rapid urbanization is expected to occur. As cities expand, they convert areas on
their rural peripheries and create an expanding urban and resource footprint. City development
will require a push for resource-efficient infrastructure and buildings and a strategic
intensification of urban spaces to improve urban productivity, creating prosperity while
reducing pressure on the planet. Material consumption in cities is increasing worldwide; in the
region, East Asia and China showed the largest increase alongside India, with less dramatic
changes in Indonesia and Thailand. Total urban final energy consumption in East Asia is
comparable to that of Northern America (UNESCAP, 2018).
9.2.1.7 Health and the Urban Environment
Many people in Asian cities suffer from poor health mainly due to poor environmental
conditions that result in malnutrition, poverty, cramped living conditions, polluted air and
contaminated water. Not only do these conditions pose a major strain on state medical facilities,
but many of the poor still lack access to these medical facilities or other health services in the
first place. These unsanitary conditions together with high population densities make Asian and
the Pacific cities particularly conducive to the breeding, mutation and spread of disease (UN
Habitat, 2012).
9.2.2 Emerging Critical Risks on Urban Environmental Management in Asia and the
Pacific Region

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Asian and the Pacific cities are among the most vulnerable to a wide range of natural disasters,
with many informal settlements located in fragile environmental areas on shorelines and major
river basins (UN-ESCAP, 2013). As a result, climate change will have significant
socioeconomic impacts in Asia and the Pacific region, from threats to food security, energy and
built infrastructure, to threats to health including from vector-borne diseases. Between 1970 and
2018, the region lost $1.5 trillion due to disasters including floods, storms, droughts,
earthquakes and tsunamis. This trend continues, as disaster impacts have been outpacing the
region’s economic growth and have risen from approximately 0.1 per cent in the 1970s to about
0.4 per cent in recent decades as a proportion of GDP. As a percentage of the GDP, disasters
cause more economic damage in Asia and the Pacific region than in the rest of the world, and
this gap has been widening (UNDRR, 2022). As a result, Asian and Pacific cities are
experiencing a growth in the frequency and intensity of disasters. The estimated damage
fluctuates from year to year according to the nature and impact of disasters. The region’s rapid
economic growth has increased the exposure of people and assets to natural hazards, thereby
increasing disaster risks. The region already suffers from the highest number of weather-related
disasters, and these are predicted to increase with climate change.
To avoid the other devastating economic losses from climate change under a business-as-usual
scenario, it is projected that South Asia alone needs to spend $40 billion per year, or 0.48 per
cent of GDP by 2050 on adaptation measures (UNESCAP, 2018). And the entire region requires
investments of $26,166 billion over the period 2016–2030, equating to an annual average of
$1,744 billion for mitigation measures and climate-proofing investments in infrastructure.
Since 1970, disasters in Asia and the Pacific region have killed two million people—59 per cent
of the global death toll. Principal causes of disaster deaths were earthquakes and storms,
followed by floods. Although fewer people have been dying from disasters in Asia and the
Pacific region, there has been an increase in the number of people affected. Between 1970 and
2018, Asia and the Pacific region, with 60 per cent of the global population, had 87 per cent of
the people affected by disasters.
9.2.3 Emerging Critical Challenges on Urban Environmental Management in Asia and
the Pacific Region
Six emerging critical challenges on urban environmental management in Asia and the Pacific
region have emerged as areas for action that are particularly critical for sustainable urban
environmental development. These are:
9.2.3.1 Plastic Waste
The world generates over 2 billion tons of municipal solid waste annually, of which an
estimated 7 to 12 per cent, by weight, consists of plastic waste. Municipal waste generation is
expected to increase to 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025, and to 3.4 billion tons by 2050, which
is more than double the population growth over the same period, as low middle-income
countries increase their per-capita incomes, and rates of growth and consumption. Under the
‘business-as-usual’ model, the proportion of plastic waste, within this global increase, is likely
to be even higher as the use of plastic products, packaging, food delivery and multi-layer
materials with plastics are on the rise. Global production of new plastic products is currently
around 350 million tons per year, of which approximately 50 per cent is for single-use items.
The production of new plastic products is forecast to double globally by 2040 to around 700
million tons per year. It should be noted that, when considering the flow of plastic waste into
rivers and oceans, just five Asian countries – China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam and

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Sri Lanka–account for 60 per cent of the global total. Addressing plastic pollution is thus a
global challenge in which Asia and the Pacific region has a disproportional influence and
potential impact. There are many challenges to plastic waste management including poor waste
management services and waste disposal or recycling infrastructure and processes, lack of
financial resources or local government capacity. There are also many opportunities for
improved plastic waste management, including the impact of digital solutions and private sector
initiatives to help identify waste hotspots, facilitate marketplaces for exchange of more valuable
materials and enable due diligence in plastic recycling value chains (United Nations, 2022).
9.2.3.2 Air Pollution
Cities across the region, such as New Delhi, frequently feature in international news headlines
about the toxic levels of smog. This is not only a public health crisis, but also an economic and
a public relations disaster for any city, as it becomes less attractive for business investments
and tourism. Sources of air pollution include energy generation, traffic, industry and
agricultural practices, such as crop burning. There are also increasing feedback loops created
by climate change such that wildfires are more extensive and numerous, particularly across
South-East Asia, which adds to the crisis. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates
that one-third of global premature deaths attributable to poor air quality occur in Asia and the
Pacific region. As the urban population expands, the quality of air in urban areas is a growing
concern. Some countries have made notable progress, such as China, where the annual median
exposure to ambient PM2.5, in 2016, was 48.8 μg/m3, which is a 17 per cent reduction from
the estimate for 2012, but still almost five times higher than WHO recommendations. However,
most cities in the region continue to experience ever worsening air quality and lack technical
knowledge and finance to address these deep-rooted challenges (United Nations, 2022).
9.2.3.3 Vertical Integration between Levels of Governance
Localizing the SDGs and translating climate action from Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) to city level action is often constrained by poor
integration and coordination between different levels of government. Vertical integration
between different levels of governance from the national level to the community level is vital
for improved action. Another important dimension to consider is coordination between sectors,
to enable integrated and joined-up approaches, that is suitable for complex systems in cities.
Implementing effective climate action in cities, for both mitigating climate change and
adaptation to impacts, often requires complex approaches. This will need governance
frameworks and instruments that are based on strong vertical and cross-sector integration,
drawing on the appropriate technical know-how and financial resources. In all cities across the
region, maximizing integration between governance levels and sectors is the first step to
mitigating aspects, such as a lack of finance and technical capacity to plan and implement green
and resilient cities and infrastructure. Addressing complex challenges, such as air pollution,
which cut across governance boundaries and sectoral responsibilities, will rely on
improvements in this vertical integration (United Nations, 2022).
9.2.3.4 Climate Change
Overall, the Asia-Pacific region contributes significantly to the production of greenhouse gas
emissions, and is also highly vulnerable to its impacts. These trends highlight the urgent need
to transition towards low-carbon development to further slowdown climate change, as well the

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need to strengthen resilience to increasingly extreme weather events in the region. Table 2
below presents regional trends related to climate change.
Table 2: Regional trends related to climate change in Asia and the Pacific region
Source: UNESCAP, (2018).
Climate change refers to changes in averages and extremes in the weather of a region or of the
planet as a whole over time. It is measured by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind,
storms and other weather indicators. The key climate change indicator is the average surface
temperature of the earth. Over the past 50 years the global average temperature increased by
0.65 °C . No region is immune to rising temperatures, though some have witnessed sharper
increases than others. Over the next 100 years the Earth’s surface temperature is expected to
increase between 1 and 4°C depending on the action taken (UN-Habitat, 2012).
Regarding statement on human involvement in climate change in its 5th
Assessment Report
(2013), the IPCC stated that “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the
1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The
atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level
has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased.…It is extremely likely
that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th
century.”
Historically, industrialized countries have been the main emitters of greenhouse gases and on a
per capita basis they continue to lead in emissions. However, by 2004 developing countries in
South and East Asia were contributing 13.1 and 17.3 per cent of global greenhouse gas
emissions, respectively (IPCC, 2007), with China having surpassed the United States as the
main emitter of greenhouse gases. The energy demand of urban areas - including Asia’s rapidly
growing cities - is a major contributor to greenhouse gases. In particular, the rapidly growing
housing and infrastructure stock in Asia with its energy needs for construction and operation as

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well as fast growing car ownership rates in the region are likely to increase per capita and total
greenhouse gas emissions in Asia. The Asia and the Pacific region also stands to be severely
affected by climate change.
Effects of Climate Change
UN-Habitat (2012) defined five main effects of climate change as follows:
• Increase in natural disasters
Many Asian cities lie on coastal plains that are bound to suffer more frequent flooding from
tidal surges and storm damage. The Asian region is already exposed to high chances of extreme
weather events such as heat waves, which affect human health, tropical cyclones, prolonged
dry spells, intense rainfall, etc. In fact, in the 20th century Asia accounted for 91 per cent of all
deaths and 49 per cent of all damage due to natural disasters.
• Urban heat island (UHI)
Urban heat island is a phenomenon that occurs in cities worldwide. Lee et al.(2019) studied
changes in seasonal UHI intensity in eight Asian mega cities consisting of Beijing, Chongqing,
Dhaka, Karachi, Manila, Mumbi, Seoul and Tokyo from 1992–2012. The results indicated that
the change in pattern of UHI intensity varies for different cities and seasons. UHI intensity
increased as the urban area size increased. Furthermore, the dependency of UHI intensity on
the economic situation was also demonstrated. With respect to the seasons, significantly
increasing trends appeared during the summer. Moreover, depending on urban characteristics
such as geography and climate, increasing trends appeared during other seasons. Population
was also found to affect UHI intensity by generating anthropogenic heat; however, its effect as
an individual factor appeared to be insignificant.
In relation to urban warming in Asia and the Pacific region, Kataoka et al. (2009) analyzed the
long-term trends in surface temperature in several large Asian cities: Seoul, Tokyo, Osaka,
Taipei, Manila, Bangkok, and Jakarta, for estimating the effects of urban warming over the last
100 year from 1901-2001. A new heat island intensity (E-HII) was proposed: it is the value
obtained by subtracting the temperature data of the four grids around the city from the
observational temperature data in the city. Osaka showed the largest E-HII, increasing from
approximately 2.4 °C in 1901 to almost 3 °C after 1981. The E-HIIs of Seoul, Tokyo, and
Taipei, have increased by 1 °C to 2 °C. Jakarta and Bangkok exhibited a lower E-HII. E-HIIs
of Manila and Bangkok have been increasing rapidly after 1961.In terms of empirical study on
UHI, Kurniati and Nitivattananon (2016) studied significant factors influencing UHI in
Surabaya city, one of the metropolitan cities in Indonesia. They found that provision of green
space, electricity consumption and use of asphalt are the significant factors that influence UHI
in the city. As a result, consideration to development and management of environment related
strategies and measures is being needed. Municipality can focus to implement or establish for
emphasizing most significant factors. Hence, this result can be a reference to mitigate UHI in
Surabaya or other cities with similar characteristics.
• Rising Sea Level

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With extensive coastlines, low-lying territories, and many small island states, Asia and the
Pacific’s geography is highly susceptible to rising sea levels and weather extremes.
Scientists predict that by the end of this century the sea level could rise by 65cm
(2.1ft). Given Asia and the Pacific’s topography, this poses an existential threat to many
countries in the region. A two meters sea level rise could displace over 180 million people,
mostly across Asia. Figure 1 below presents land areas which are less than 20M above sea
level. In Bangladesh, around 18 million people living in coastal areas will lose their homes
if the sea level rises by one meter (UNDP Asia and the Pacific, 2019). Human settlements
in low elevation coastal zones, which currently include half of the region’s urban population,
are most at risk from the increased flooding that is predicted and from the impact of storms,
even if the severity and frequency stay the same. United Nations (2017) indicated that the cities
with the highest rates of population
Source: ?
Figure 1: Land areas in Asia and the Pacific region which are less than 20M above sea
level
exposure to flooding is expected to be Kolkata, Mumbai, Dhaka, Guangzhou, Ho Chi Minh
City, Shanghai, Bangkok, Yangon, and Hai Phòng. Small island developing States are
especially at risk from sea level rise, tropical cyclones, increasing air and sea surface
temperatures and changing rainfall patterns. Projected increases in sea level rise through to
2100 among small island developing States, combined with common extreme sea level events,
demonstrate severe flood and erosion risks for low-lying coastal areas and atoll islands.
• In urban areas, the poor are most vulnerable to climate change
Due to their size, geographic location and elevation, cities in Asia are the most exposed to the
effects of climate change such as droughts and heat waves, floods and cyclones or in the
proximity of waste dump-sites. These will affect all aspects of life. The urban poor are
particularly vulnerable as they are often forced to settle on the most vulnerable land. These are

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likely to become more vulnerable due to the effects of climate change such as increased rainfall
and inundation, stronger cyclones, typhoons and storms, and sea level rise. Moreover, the poor
are more likely to be affected due to water and food shortages, as well as well as the rapid
spread of disease.
To showcase likely climate change impacts, the Asian Institute of Technology researchers
conducted a study during 2011-2014 on vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in
15 coastal cities of 3 countries in South East Asia including Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam
during 2011-2014 . They selected 5 coastal cities for each country and found that the patterns
of vulnerability vary from country to country depending on specific geographical locations and
elevation of coastal cities. Out of 5 coastal cities in Indonesia, Makassa city is highest prone to
sea level rise particularly on coastal areas and small islands, as well as highest susceptible
hazards from floods on coastal and riverine communities. Out of 5 coastal cities in Thailand,
Bangkok metropolis poses highest vulnerable to floods on urban population near canals and
rivers, and encountered highest land subsidence on urban population and infrastructure. Out of
5 coastal cities in Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City is highest prone to floods on local transport, and
posing highest sea level rise effect on local housing. Table 3 below highlights vulnerability to
climate change in 15 coastal cities of 3 countries in South East Asia.
Nitivattananon and Sirinapha (2019) studied the relationships between tourism, coastal areas,
the environment, and climate change in the context of tourism urbanization in three popular
destinations in popular Eastern coastal destinations in Thailand namely Koh Chang, Koh Mak,
and Pattaya. They found that the development of these destinations has been incompatible with
the coastal environment and climate change patterns. Rapid urbanization from tourism
development is the main driver of environmental changes and makes the areas vulnerable to
climate change-related risks. While water scarcity and pollution are found the most critical
Table 3: Vulnerability to Climate Change in 15 Coastal Cities of South East Asia
during 2011-2014

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Source: Asian Institute of Technology, (2014)?
environmental issues of the destinations, coastal areas are negatively affected in terms of
increased air and water pollution and resource degradation. They have also been exposed to
different climate change-related problems while the risks of accumulative impacts of both
environment and climate change have not been adequately recognized or addressed. As a result,
they suggested public infrastructure integration and optimization to enhance coastal areas’
environment and climate resilience.
• Eco refugees
Many people living in thousands of cities and towns across Asia and the Pacific region face
increasing uncertainty about their future, with millions potentially relocating as ‘eco-refugees’
(known as climate change refugees) from affected urban and rural areas. The relocation of
eco-refugees will pose a significant challenge, requiring new urban settlements that will further
reduce the amounts of land available for food production. In the Pacific, the majority of the
population, infrastructure and development are in coastal areas, which are vulnerable to extreme
tides, surges and sea level rise, and migration patterns and population growth are driving larger
populations into those vulnerable areas.
9.2.3.5 Water Insecurity
The availability of water is a challenging issue. Agriculture is the main driver of freshwater
withdrawals in Asia, although rural to urban water ratios are shifting because of urbanization.
Linked to climate change, freshwater availability is expected to decrease in countries at low
latitudes, including heavily irrigated areas in China and India. The proportion of water
withdrawn for agriculture was more than 90 per cent for 13 countries in the region in particular
in Central Asia. Nearly all countries in the region are experiencing increasing pressure on water
resources owing to their growing populations and economic development. Between 1990 and
2010, per capita water availability dropped by 42 per cent in Solomon Islands, 36 per cent in
Malaysia, Pakistan and Nepal, 29 per cent in India and Bangladesh and 23 per cent in Vietnam
(UNESCAP, 2018).As a result, the Asian and the Pacific region is still most vulnerable to water
insecurity. According to the Asian Water Development Outlook (AWDO) (2016), it found that
the major water insecurity problems include overexploitation of groundwater, increasing
demand from rising population and climate variability. In 2016, the number of countries
assessed as water insecure has dropped to 29 as compared to 38 (out of 49 countries) in the

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previous report published in 2013. As a result, Asia and the Pacific Region remains the world’s
most vulnerable region to water insecurity and cannot sustain its recent economic growth
without addressing this issue.
AWDO (2016) also pointed out despite this progress, enormous challenges in water security
remain. Asia is home to half of the world’s poorest people. Water for agriculture continues to
consume 80% of water resources. A staggering 1.7 billion people lack access to basic sanitation.
With a predicted population of 5.2 billion by 2050 and 22 megacities by 2030, the region’s
finite water resources will be under enormous pressure—especially with increasing climate
variability. Recent estimates indicate up to 3.4 billion people could be living in water-stressed
areas of Asia by 2050.Recently, AWDO (2020) disclosed 1.5 billion people in rural areas and
0.6 billion in urban areas still lack adequate water supply and sanitation. Sound water
management and access to reliable service delivery remain vital to inclusive economic growth
and social well-being, especially after the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemics. In terms
of empirical climate change risk assessment on water, Noi and Nitivattananon (2015) conducted
an assessment of vulnerabilities to climate change for urban water and wastewater infrastructure
management with a case study in Dong Nai river basin of Vietnam. They found that applying
risk vulnerability assessment in three cities: Dalat, HCMC and Vung Tau, followed by
vulnerability assessment at community level, provides an innovative and practical approach for
conducting climate change risk assessment of urban water and wastewater infrastructure at city
to community levels.
In relation to empirical research on water reuse, Nitivattananon and Sa-nguanduan (2013)
conducted a study on analyzing domestic water reuse (WR) situation in the context of middle-
income country based on the case of Thailand. The results found that the major drivers of
domestic water reuse are water shortages, policy instruments, economic incentives, and
environmental awareness. Furthermore, the constraints on WR in the domestic sector lie in the
areas of public acceptance, investment and O&M costs, adverse effects on human health, laws
and regulations, and the efficiency and reliability of wastewater treatment systems. Similarities
between high- and middle-income countries on WR for the sustainability of the water supply
are also noted. The difference is affordability, particularly regarding economic and technical
issues. The WR opportunities in Thailand should focus on non-potable use (such as landscape
irrigation) in urban water with medium to large areas or population size, requiring policies to
encourage WR development and to address some implementation issues through regulatory and
incentive measures, including preventing negative effects while encouraging positive effects of
WR applications. Hence, the government could be expected to play an important role in WR
development.
9.2.4 Urban Opportunities for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific Region
In relation to urban opportunity for sustainable development, UNESCAP (2020) identified four
key priority areas for urban transformation in Asia and the Pacific region, which consist of:
9.2.4.1 Urban and Territorial Planning
Urban and territorial planning is the bedrock of the sustainable future city. A single-plan vision
is essential to create an agreed road map for a city’s future growth, transformation, upgrade or
shrinkage. National planning practices and statutes vary widely, but the International
Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning offer a template for basic planning principles.

14. 14
Thoughtful planning has been key for the Asia and Pacific cities that rank among the world’s
most liveable, sustainable and economically successful cities. The city planners of the future
will need to make sure that the cities they design can withstand all forms of short-term shocks
and long-term stresses, particularly when it comes to environmental challenges, by integrating
sustainability and quality of life into their spatial plans, visions and strategies. Aided by new
forms of planning technologies, they will need to co-produce solutions with citizens to promote
urban growth and regeneration and optimize urban-rural and city-region relations.
9.2.4.3 Urban Resilience
In a world of increasing climate change threats, planning must serve more than just charting
needs against future population growth or decline. Urban resilience is the next principle that
must be layered atop planning in order to ensure the future prosperity of Asia and the Pacific
cities. The resilient cities of the future will need to be effective at breaking down silos among
entrenched city government departments by encouraging collaboration to address crossing
challenges, such as economic downturns, migration crises, natural disasters and extreme events.
Nature-based infrastructure solutions and the dynamism of the informal economy are
particularly strong tools that cities can employ to create sustainable and resilient outcomes for
all. Sustainable urban and territorial planning provides an opportunity to reduce the negative
impacts of cities on the climate system, while mitigating the impacts of climate change and
extreme events on urban areas through appropriate resilience responses. To assess the climate-
related risks, further research projects could focus on urban and ocean synergies, including
coastal and small-town human settlements in the Asia and Pacific region. These additional
challenges must be incorporated into urban resilience and policymaking responses.
9.2.4.3 Smart and inclusive cities
Smart cities that rely on advanced technology now have endlessly customizable tools to monitor
and model nearly every aspect of urban life. Clear regulations and cybersecurity policies are
essential to managing the digital future of urban policymaking. Such regulations can also
temper the potential data collection excesses of new technologies by enshrining privacy rights
that build trust with citizens. The smart cities of the future support infrastructure and innovative
technology with governance and security systems to improve citizens’ quality of life and
enhance their interactions with the urban environment. Becoming a smart city is not a goal but
a means towards achieving sustainability. Technology is simply a tool to optimize the
infrastructure, resources and spaces that people share. Future smart cities need to focus on
improving outcomes for residents and use the creativity of the technology sector in shaping the
integration between the physical and digital environment in Asia and the Pacific region.
9.2.4.4 Urban finance
A well-planned, resilient vision for a sustainable city that employs inclusive technology will
not be realized without a means to pay for everything, ranging from robust planning capacity
to resilient infrastructure to smart city toolkits. Urban finance is the backbone that ties together
the previous three components of sustainable cities. The world of municipal finance is vast and
complex, but there are specific areas, such as land-linked financing and pollution pricing, in
which cities can seize the fiscal control in order to achieve discrete objectives. Innovative urban
finance has been pursued by cities of all sizes and all types of local governments. The
sustainable cities of the future will employ more creative financing solutions for infrastructure

15. 15
improvement projects. Building the right networks – through public-private partnerships or
community finance initiatives will be critical to help cities to improve their operations.
9.3 PROGRESS OF IMPLEMENTING SUSTAIANBLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON
THE TARGETS OF SUSTAIANBLE CITIES AND COMMUNITIES IN ASIA AND
THE PACIFIC REGION
To investigate the progress on implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
during
2015-2030 in Asia and the Pacific region, UNESCAP (2022) found that very little progress has
been made since 2015 particularly on the targets of sustainable cities and communities. Despite
progress in implementing national and local disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies, human
and economic losses from natural disasters continue to increase. Progress towards reducing
urban air pollution since 2015 has been stagnant, and there are still large populations living in
slums or inadequate housing. As a result, much more effort is needed to move SDGs on
sustainable cities and communities in Asia and the Pacific region forward.
9.4 PROMOTING SMART CITIES FOR ENABLING SUSTAINABLE URBAN
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IN ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION
This section explains smart city and its components, the new data and digital technologies and
applications of smart city concepts for promoting smart cities with an emphasis on enabling
sustainable urban environmental management in the context of climate change in Asia and the
Pacific region. The details of this section are as follows:
9.4.1 Smart City and Its Components
Sadiku et al.(2016) defines a smart city is a high-tech urban area that connects people,
information and technologies in order to increase quality of life. Smart cities are those
communities that pursue sustainable economic development through investments in human and
social capital and manage natural resources through participatory policies. A smart city
monitors the conditions and integrates critical infrastructures such as bridges, tunnels, roads,
subways, airports, seaports, and buildings. Components of a smart city include smart people,
smart governance, smart homes, smart infrastructure, smart technology, smart economy, smart
mobility, smart living, smart parking, and smart environment. Some of these components are
illustrated in Figure 2 below.

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Source: Sadiku et al.(2016)
Figure 2: The main components of a smart city
The characteristics of some components of smart city are as follows:
Smart Environment: Smart city is a city that utilizes advanced technology and innovation to
enhance the efficiency of services and urban planning, to reduce the cost and resources used by
the city and target population. This ideal city focuses on a good design and the participation of
the business sector and people in developing the city under the concept of a better and modern
city where city people live happily and sustainably, and have a good quality of life.
Smart Economy: The city that uses digital technology to create value-added economic systems
and environmental management efficiently such as Smart Tourism City, Smart Agricultural
City, etc.
Smart Energy: The city that has the capacity to manage energy effectively, create a balance
between production and the use of energy in the area to build stable energy and decrease energy
dependency from the main electricity network.
Smart Governance: The city that develops a governmental service system with a focus on
transparency and engagement to facilitate who need to access government news and
information. That development will be improved continuously through the application of
service innovation.
Smart Living: The city that develops facilities with consideration in Universal Design to
promote a good quality of life and health of people so they can live a safe and happy life.
Smart Mobility: The city that emphasizes the development of smart traffic and transportation
system to drive the country by elevating efficiency and connection between transportation

17. 17
systems and various travel, increasing conveniences and safety in that connection, and being
environmentally friendly.
Smart People: The city that strive for developing knowledge, skills, and an environment that
empower lifetime learning, reduce inequality in society and economy, and pave the way for
creativity, innovation and people engagement.
9.4.2 New Data Digital Technologies for Smart Cities
Data and digital solutions are rapidly opening up new horizons in sustainable urban
development. While cities are facing a multitude of challenges, the world is experiencing the
beginning of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, based on extensive Internet and smartphone
penetration, cheaper and more accessible computing capability and a host of frontier
technologies, such as Big Data, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning, the Internet of
Things (IoT), Digital Ledger Technologies (DLT) supported by blockchain, as well as tools like
drones which can help provide cheap and frequent aerial mapping and surveys. Innovative
approaches to collect, analyze and manage data are significantly improving the basis of
understanding and managing cities and infrastructure. Digital solutions also provide extensive
opportunities for the private sector and a wide range of partnerships to help deliver services.
New data and technologies for smart cities also come with a host of risks and challenges, which
must be recognized and mitigated. These include data privacy, digital inclusion of women and
vulnerable groups and avoid fixed bias as we transfer our understanding of society from reality
to a digital form (United Nations, 2022).
9.4.3 Promoting Smart Cities for Enabling Sustainable Urban Environmental
Management in the Context of Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific Region
To address critical emerging urban environmental problems, risks and challenges, there are
widely adoptions of translating smart city concepts into smart city initiatives in Asia and the
Pacific region. By promoting smart cities for enabling sustainable urban environmental
management in the context of climate change, smart environment, which is one of the core
components of smart cities conceptually is solutions for the environment consisting of smart
systems for managing environmental quality, irrigation, waste, photovoltaics, lighting, weather
station and water supplies. Its objective is to improve energy efficiency and the quality of the
environment in cities. In practice, there are various examples of innovative approaches and
progress of smart cities in the region. The following insights from cities in the region provide
valuable experiences and learning by applying digital and smart city solutions.
In this regard, there are 8 case studies of smart cities for enabling sustainable urban
environmental management, which are currently in practice in Asia and the Pacific region
including:
• Iskandar, Malaysia: Blueprint to transition to a low-carbon and resilient society
• Battambang, Cambodia: Enhanced Waste Management via a Digital Solution
• Jinan, China: Building an Intelligent Ecosystem for Its Traffic Management (“Jinan
Traffic Brain”)
• Putrajaya Lake, Malaysia: The System of Environment Pollution Control at Source
• Fukuoka, Japan: Hydrogen from Sewage
• Fukuoka, Japan: Tenjin Big Bang Project

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• Fukuoka, Japan: Water-Conscious Urban Development
• Ahmedabad, India: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan
The brief features of each case study are as follows:
9.4.3.1 Iskandar, Malaysia: Blueprint to transition to a low-carbon and resilient society
The Iskandar region of Malaysia is made up of five local authorities in the Johor State. The
region faces challenges with flash floods, poor water quality, and high levels of greenhouse gas
emissions with related air pollution. Addressing these challenges requires cross-sector planning
and support from various stakeholders spanning all levels of government, private sector bodies,
civil society, and international counterparts. Therefore, the Iskandar Regional Development
Authority (IRDA) launched a Low Carbon Society Blueprint in 2012, which guides the region
aiming to reduce its emissions by 58 per cent by 2025. Its experience was showcased at the
Seventh Asia-Pacific Urban Forum in 2017 in Penang and progress has continued since then. It
is important of having a robust, comprehensive and up-to-date data and knowledge management
system at the regional level.In order to cope with data collection and analysis challenges, the
IRDA is currently setting up a new, central body responsible for climate-data gathering,
management, monitoring and analysis, known as the Iskandar Malaysia Urban Observatory
(IMUO). This will be a ‘single window’ that integrates data from various authoritative sources
and transforms them into actionable information for better policymaking and well-informed
decision-making. It is notable that, in setting the
Source: United Nations (2022).
Figure 3: A screenshot from Iskandar Malaysia’s Urban Observatory Data portal
momentum for Digital Economy in Iskandar, Malaysia, IMUO collaborates with its partners in
developing smart technology that will be utilized in Smart City Solutions through various pilot
projects currently underway for making this city smarter (United Nations, 2022).
9.4.3.2 Battambang, Cambodia: Enhanced Waste Management via a Digital Solution
Throughout the “Localizing the 2030 Agenda in Asian and Pacific Cities” project, being
implemented by Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and UN-Habitat,

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the city government in Battambang has been gathering information, analyzing data, and
disseminating knowledge with a focus on sustainably managing its solid waste. Details on waste
generation, composition of recyclable material, service coverage and quality, disposal and
treatment practices, and the policy landscape have contributed to developing comprehensive
and integrated project activities and policies. Digital solutions can have a great impact in
improving the effectiveness of data management. Furthermore, mobile applications and the use
of social media can improve community awareness on effective solid waste management
(SWM) approaches through outreach programs on recycling, enhancing quality of waste
collection services, and incorporating technological innovation into Battambang’s SWM.
Hence, it was decided by the municipality that a mobile application so called GreenCambodia
should be piloted in Battambang for enhanced waste management. It provides a digital platform
to map waste collection routes, a marketplace for trading recyclable materials, and a way to flag
problems with waste collection service delivery (United Nations, 2022).
9.4.3.3 Jinan, China: Building an Intelligent Ecosystem for Its Traffic Management (“Jinan
Traffic Brain”)
Problem
With the increase of urban residents’ travel demand and the continuous growth of the number
of urban motor vehicles, the problem of urban traffic congestion has intensified in Jinan,
the capital city of Shandong province in Eastern China. Further, the supply of transportation
resources is not coordinated with the demand for diversified activities, nor is the allocation of
technical strategies and the demand for transportation development.
Solution
The Chinese city of Jinan has built a “one cloud plus four hubs” operating system architecture,
which is a traffic management ecosystem with real-time perception of traffic signs, dynamic
analysis of traffic emergency events, scientific evaluation of traffic status, and intelligent traffic
control decisions. The overall big data management cloud gathers traffic data, while the “four
hubs” are composed of a perception center, an analysis center, a decision center, and an
evaluation center. These hubs are responsible for building a closed-loop control mode of “real-
time perception-analysis and judgment-intelligent decision-release evaluation”, which finally
evolves into a real traffic brain that is capable of self-evolution and self-learning. Through
accurate and complete data collection, the system platform relies on the learning, cognition,
interpretation, calculation, simulation, and decision-making, which makes traffic management
and decision-making more effective, while the carrying capacity of the road network can be
maximized.
By using Augmented Reality (AR) panoramic and situation monitoring, static and slow traffic
sensing and other technologies in order to build a full domain, time and dimensional
information perception tentacles, Jinan Traffic Brain has created a citywide real-time
situational awareness with 4 technical functions consisting of:
1) Jinan’s road traffic index was established, which uses operating speed, congestion level
and other factors as status indicators to accurately describe the traffic operation and
management and thus, to provide more/better data support for traffic police decision-making.
2) Perform analysis and judgment of traffic congestion through the analysis of traffic
conditions, accidents and traffic violations based on data-supported research and assessment,

20. 20
the data mining of historical traffic conditions. the visualization analysis of accidents as well as
police force deployment analysis.
3) Install intelligent control of traffic signals by creating two closed-loop signal management
mechanisms.
4) Coordinated police supervision management through four “closed-loops” comprising a
closed-loop police dispatch and handling, a closed-loop remote mediation and closed-loop
video inspections, which form a closed-loop management of the entire life cycle of smart
services, enabling the respective commander to fully control the workload and efficiency of the
civilian police.
Results/Benefits
Standardized data and interfaces, multi-engine optimization and open pattern analysis together
ensured the system capable of self-evolving and growing gradually. Based on its accurate
display of the city’s driver behavior and urban traffic operation, and by providing intelligent
parking guidance and signal light management, the Jinan Traffic Brain is able to control
congestion points at the micro level, analyze the traffic planning at the medium level, and
support the traffic development at the macro level. Since the application of the four closed-loop
systems, the intelligent dispatching business has been significantly improved in the following
four aspects:
Source: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, (2021).
Figure 4: Screenshot of the Jinan Traffic Brain Real Time AR Command Center Interface
1. Command and dispatch daily average handling of more than 500 accident alarm cases, more
than 150 quick accident handling alarm cases, and more than 400 traffic congestion alarms.
2. The average time of receiving and dispatching police was reduced from 7 minutes before the
establishment of smart office, to 4.5 minutes, and the overtime rate of receiving and dispatching
police was less than 0.5%.
3. The average time of handling the police on the spot was improved from 9 minutes to 7
minutes, and the overtime rate was less than 0.9%.

21. 21
4. The average time of police mediation in the traffic accident remote mediation center
decreased from 7 minutes to 5 minutes, and the overtime rate was less than 0.8% (Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation Secretariat, 2021).
9.4.3.4 Putrajaya Lake, Malaysia: The System of Environment Pollution Control at Source
Putrajaya Lake is a man-made lake located at the center of the city of Putrajaya, Malaysia’s
new federal administrative capital built in 1995. It is designed to be the new home to all of
Malaysia’s federal government ministries and domestic level civil servants, host all diplomatic
activities of Malaysia, and function as a potent symbol of the Malaysia’s ambitious
modernization agenda. A 400-hectare lake is designed to act as a cooling system for the whole
city and also designated to recreation and water-based activities such as water sports, water
transport and fishing. It has an average depth of 6.60m and a catchment area of 50.9 square
kilometers.
Problem
The water quality of the lake is an essential factor to ensure its environmental, social and also
economic benefits as a natural asset that attracts thousands of visitors every year and provides
the city with an important and characteristic blue infrastructure. Water quality measurements
were regularly taken by the Putrajaya Corporation; however, laboratory analyses took up to
14 days to get the results. The officers in charge needed to proceed to the sampling site and
send the sample to the laboratory. Whenever pollution incidents occurred at an upstream area,
the enforcement act could not be carried out immediately. Thus, the pollution-causing offender
could easily escape from any enforcement action.
Solution
In order to improve the water quality measurement and speed up the reaction time in case of
pollution incidents, the city of Putrajaya implemented a continuous Lake Water Quality
Monitoring programme, also known as Putrajaya Lake: The System of Environment Pollution
Control at Source-Sistem Problem Solution Kawalan Punca Pencemaran Alam Sekitar
(SKPPAS). Since 2016, the spatial and temporal trends in water quality are determined by 21
physiochemical water quality data monitored continuously for 24 hours by five selected
stations, which have been selected as a hotspot area along the Putrajaya Lake, verifying that the
water quality of Putrajaya Lake is suitable for the intended use of the lake. The monitored and
observed real-time data from the stations are sent to a Command Center. Certain data, such as
the hourly captured Water Quality Index, are also shared online with the public.

22. 22
Source: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, (2021).
Figure 4: Firmly Embedded Extension of the Putrajaya Lake in the Eponymous City
Results/Benefits
Since the establishment of the SKPPAS System in Putrajaya Lake, pollution incidents have
been detected earlier and the effects of water quality damage can be controlled more
efficiently within 24 hours. Putrajaya Corporation has improved its response time as pollution
alarms are also triggered through smart phones. The initiative maintains the water quality of
the lake, which is measured by the Key Performance Indicator (KPI) of a minimum of Class II
of the abovementioned Malaysia Water Quality Standard, and thus attracts a huge number of
people to the lake-more than 1.5 million people every year enjoy the beautiful scenery of the
Putrajaya Lake -in order to contribute to the SDG 3-Good Health and Well–being; and SDG
11-Sustainable Cities and Communities. The impact of deploying this innovative or advanced
technology can be very essential in ensuring financial benefits for the authority: for a short-
term impact, the government needs to invest to install and maintain the system. In the long-
run, the establishment of the SKPPAS System has brought economic impact compared with
the rehabilitation of the lake in case a problem should occur. Until now, no negative impacts
of the initiative have been observed (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, 2021).

23. 23
Source: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, (2021).
Figure 5: SCADA Architecture of the Automatic Water Quality Monitoring System
9.4.3.5 Fukuoka, Japan: Hydrogen from Sewage
The City of Fukuoka has created hydrogen from city sewage to power fuel-cell vehicles, which
is superior zero-emission technology. It is vital to work towards a low-carbon society while
using cutting-edge technology. Electric cars are already gaining in popularity in the city;
however, Fukuoka faces challenges, such as lengthy charging and comparatively short distances
that the cars can run. Therefore, an alternative was pursued.
The biogas from processing the sewage created daily by Fukuoka’s 1.58 million citizens
generates hydrogen, which can be pumped into fuel-cell vehicles at the special fueling station
built by the city. Fukuoka is collaborating with many universities and companies that are
making progress in the field of hydrogen research.
Since the project’s launch in 2016, the hydrogen energy derived from household sewage not
only fuels regular cars, but also powers motorcycles and logistic trucks in the city center.
Fukuoka wants to use this energy not only for mobility needs, but also to develop a variety of
energy provisions throughout the city. The city believes the project will help enable resilient,
disaster-resistant urban development, as the energy can be used as a reserve in emergencies
(World Economic Forum, 2020).

24. 24
Source: World Economic Forum, (2020).
Figure 6: The City of Fukuoka
9.4.3.6 Fukuoka, Japan: Tenjin Big Bang Project
The Tenjin Big Bang Project features disaster-resistant urban development through
redeveloping the city center with relaxed regulations to attract private finances.
Private buildings in Fukuoka’s city center are deteriorating. Suffering from countless
earthquakes, the city wants to progress its disaster-resistant urban development by
reconstructing underutilized structures into aseismic buildings. In addition, these earthquake-
proof buildings are designed to be equipped with the latest information technology to provide
a business-friendly environment for enterprises. Fukuoka’s public spending is predominantly
taken up by welfare-related services. As a result, the city did not have the financial capacity to
support this kind of urban development. Fukuoka came up with incentives to encourage private
companies to rebuild these underutilized downtown areas. The city’s international airport is
close to its city center. Under the national legislation, the heights of buildings in the area are
restricted. Fukuoka’s city council collaborated with the national government to make an
exception for the city to relax the height regulations, thus allowing for taller buildings.
Furthermore, the city offers deregulation opportunities for buildings that have a floor area ratio
of the aseismic designs, for public green spaces or for free public spaces.
The initiative attracted many private developers, who presented their disaster-resistant
renovation proposals, as well as well-designed buildings with public spaces. Without relying
on public spending, Fukuoka city has been able to modernize and improve the city center’s
public functions through deregulatory approaches. These create a win-win opportunity by
engaging the private sector and piloting an innovative partnership model towards sustainable
urban development (World Economic Forum, 2020).
9.4.3.7 Fukuoka, Japan: Water-Conscious Urban Development
This initiative uses ICT for water-conscious urban development. Fukuoka, the only major
Japanese city without a large river, is prone to water shortages. In the past, the city suffered

25. 25
severely from large-scale droughts. Therefore, Fukuoka city required a scheme that distributed
its limited water supply efficiently to each citizen.
The city developed a system that can simultaneously monitor and control the water flow and
pressure to be supplied to each area of the city via special sensors. This system can increase and
decrease the water pressure in specific areas as required under precise operation. It monitors
and controls the water leakage. Additionally, using prediction models based on analytics from
the sensor data in the system, the city can forecast how much water each area requires, achieving
an effective water distribution channel throughout the city. Public awareness projects and
tangible technical optimization are both essential to achieve water-conscious urban
development. The citizens of Fukuoka are educated on the importance of saving water at school
and through various civic engagement opportunities. As a result, 90% of the city’s citizens are
dedicated to saving water. Moreover, the amount of water used by Fukuoka citizens is lowest
among all of Japan’s major cities.
This system, under operation for many years, is now fully adopted across the city. Fukuoka’s
leakage rate fell to 2%, regarded as a top-level standard globally (World Economic Forum,
2020).
9.4.3.8 Ahmedabad, India: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan
In 2015, Ahmedabad became the first Indian city to create a comprehensive early warning
system and preparedness plan for extreme heat events (Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan [HAP],
2019 Update).Extreme heat events are becoming more common with climate change. The death
toll in cities can be frightfully high due to the urban heat island effect and other factors. The
poor are especially vulnerable groups.
According to the Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan guide, the HAP relies on four key strategies as
follows:
• Building public awareness and community outreach to communicate the risks of heat
waves and implement practices to prevent heat-related deaths and illnesses, using
traditional and social media
• Initiating an early warning system and inter-agency coordination to alert residents of
predicted extreme temperatures forecasted by the Indian Meteorological Department;
formal communication channels alert government agencies, health officials, hospitals,
emergency responders, community groups and media outlets
• Capacity building among healthcare professionals to recognize and respond to heat-
related illnesses
• Reducing heat exposure and promoting adaptive measures by launching new efforts,
including mapping high-risk neighborhoods, increasing access to potable water and
cooling spaces on hot days, and other methods.

26. 26
Source: World Economic Forum, (2020).
Figure 7: The City of Ahmedabad
Collaboration was key. The Ahmedabad city government partnered with the Indian Institute of
Public Health, Public Health Foundation of India, Natural Resources Defense Council, Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York (USA) and Rollins School of Public Health at
Emory University, Atlanta (USA), to deliver the plan.
Before scaling the initiative, a formal study was undertaken to prove that Ahmedabad’s HAP
saves lives. To achieve scale, it required engagement with India’s National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) and the Indian Meteorological Department. Currently, more
than 30 Indian cities have developed HAPs using NDMA guidance based on Ahmedabad’s
experience (World Economic Forum, 2020).
9.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This section covers conclusions and recommendations based on key findings and insights of
the preceding sections. The details are as follows:
9.5.1 Conclusions
The world is currently experiencing rapid urbanization phenomena as 4.46 billion people or
55 % of the world population current live in urban areas globally, and it will grow to
6.68 billion or 68% of population by 2050, adding about 2.50 billion people more to urban
areas. Also, the Asian continent is projected to become the fastest urbanizing region in the
world with as much as 3.39 billion population or 64% of population living in urban areas by
2050 as the poor continue to be drawn to better opportunities. In Asia and the Pacific region,
cities generate over 80 per cent of gross domestic product in many countries and are engines of
economic growth that have lifted millions from poverty. This economic growth is accelerating
rural to urban migration. Currently, approximately 700 million people live in urban slum.
Although this region includes some of the fastest-growing and most developed economies,
cities in the region, as the hub of human innovation and advancement, face critical problems to

27. 27
its continued development such as air pollution, traffic congestion, clean water supply and
wastewater, solid waste and plastic pollution, unsustainable resources use, and health and the
urban environment. The emerging critical challenges on urban environmental management in
the region are plastic waste, climate change and its effects on increase in natural disasters, rising
sea level, urban heat island, the poor are most vulnerable to climate change, eco refugees, and
water insecurity. Relating to the emerging critical risks Asian and Pacific cities are among the
most vulnerable to a wide range of natural disasters, such as floods, storms, droughts,
earthquakes and tsunamis with many informal settlements located in fragile environmental
areas on shorelines and major river basins. There is existent of urban opportunities for
sustainable development, which included 4 key priority areas for urban transformation in Asia
and the Pacific region. These are urban and territorial planning, urban resilience, smart and
inclusive cities, and urban finance. Therefore, cities are the centerpiece where these issues need
to be addressed. The quality and efficiency of Asian and Pacific cities will determine the
region’s long-term productivity and overall stability. And these urban challenges have very
significant impacts on the national economies.
To investigate the progress on implementing the Sustainable Development Goals during
2015-2030 in Asia and the Pacific region, UNESCAP (2022) found that very little progress has
been made since 2015 on the targets of sustainable cities and communities. Despite progress in
implementing national and local disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies, human and economic
losses from natural disasters continue to increase. Progress towards reducing urban air pollution
since 2015 has been stagnant, and there are still large populations living in slums or inadequate
housing. Technologically, cities are undergoing rapid digital transformation and are
experimenting with inclusive and innovative models to integrate Fourth Industrial Revolution
technologies into their programmes, infrastructure, services and governance. A city becomes
smarter with the advance of digital infrastructure that enhances the connectivity between
physical space and city management systems, as well as the communication channel between
citizen and local government. Through big data analytics and IoT, a new urban social contract
is gradually formed between local government, businesses and individual citizens. The
stimulation feedback system further enables each actor to become part of the solutions to urban
problems and challenges, as well as end users themselves.
To address critical emerging urban environmental problems, risks and challenges, there are
widely adoptions for translating smart city concepts to smart city initiatives in Asia and the
Pacific region. By promoting smart cities for enabling sustainable urban environmental
management in the context of climate change, smart environment, which is one of the core
components of smart cities conceptually is solutions for the environment consisting of smart
systems for managing environmental quality, irrigation, waste, photovoltaics, lighting, weather
station and water supplies. Its objective is to improve energy efficiency and the quality of the
environment in cities. In practice, there are various examples of innovative approaches and
progress in the region. This paper has presented 8 different case studies, which provide valuable
experiences and learning by applying digital and smart city solutions for enabling sustainable
urban environmental management so as to promote thriving, green, resilient and sustainable
cities.
9.5.2 Recommendations
The smart city recommendations for enabling sustainable urban environmental management
actionable are as follows:

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• Increase PM2.5 and PM10 real time data collection, as this is particularly important in
all cities. There could be more consistent and widely available support on how to set up
the necessary infrastructure and database as well as consistent data entry.
• Real-time traffic data can power algorithms used by municipalities to manage traffic
congestion by optimizing road logistics and routes. Data should be used to prevent
congestion through intelligent synching of traffic signals, prompting variable speed
limits, and providing drivers with real-time alerts advising the fastest routes.
• Smart traffic prediction should be promoted in reducing the traffic level in cities, as
well as adopting fusion-based intelligent traffic congestion control system for
vehicular networks using machine learning techniques to manage traffic congestion in
cities.
• Introduce an IoT-enabled solid waste management system for smart cities in order to
overcome the limitations of the traditional waste management systems.
• Develop smart water systems for detecting leaks or monitoring how water is being
distributed across the network and allows people to make more informed decisions
about water management, together with building smart wastewater systems in order to
meet the demand for freshwater in smart cities by detecting and preventing combined
sewage overflows and chemicals in wastewater utilizing IoT sensors.
• Make better urban planning and building design are long-term mitigation measures of
urban heat island, and urban development should take into consideration on health and
climate change adaptation. For example, improved city and indoor natural ventilation,
and increased greenery ratio are effective to mitigate higher air temperatures and can
lead to a better and healthier living.
• Adopt integrated resilience system linking interconnected critical infrastructures in a
smart city to improve disaster resilience.
• Build climate-smart cities in order to fight against climate change and improve
people’s quality of life, which involve a vast range of measures, depending on the
location’s needs – from flood defences and drainage canals, to electrified transport and
the creation of green spaces for urban cooling.
• Strengthen smart and inclusive cities as well as making slums communities resilient to
both chronic stresses and the changes that they themselves will bring.
• Improve smart city governance across urban systems, institutions and actors to
overcome inequalities and make more informed and integrated planning decisions.
• Adopt cybersecurity safeguards in both digital and physical urban infrastructure
development planning.
• Develop smart mobility investment plans that prioritize sustainable urban mobility
options for citizens.
• Focus on the importance of supporting local governments and other stakeholders in data
collection, and make sure it is in line with gender and inclusion principles, such as
appropriate data disaggregation as digital and smart city solutions are based on data.
• Involve citizens in data collection and be as inclusive as possible.
• Provide a national level roadmap and contextualize smart cities. National governments
should conduct this for their country, so that their cities have a consistent approach to
smart cities, particularly for low-income countries with rapidly growing cities.
• Implement pilot projects in cities to provide valuable demonstration opportunities to
show how countries/ cities can move forward with sustainable smart city approaches.
• It is also important to support entrepreneurs to drive solutions in rapidly developing
digital economies, by enabling partnerships and promote private sector innovation to

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harness frontier technologies such as Machine Learning and Big Data for more informed
urban planning.
• Expand viable smart city funding mechanisms by enabling cross-sector partnerships and
business matching platforms.
• Encourage technology firms to become more civic-minded and create sustainable smart
city solutions with social enterprises.
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