The document discusses reproduction in angiosperms and summarizes key processes: 1) Pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains between plants, facilitated by animals, wind or water. Fertilization fuses male and female gametes to form a zygote. 2) Seed dispersal moves seeds away from the parental plant after fertilization, reducing competition. Dispersal mechanisms include fruits, wind, water and animals. 3) Germination requires oxygen, water, temperature and may need additional conditions like light or darkness. It involves the breakdown of starches and proteins stored in seeds to provide energy for the sprouting embryo.

1. 9.3 REPRODUCTION IN
ANGIOSPERMOPHYTES
FATIH HAZIQ HARIZAN
MUHAMMAD FAHMI AHMAD LATHPI

2. 9.3.1 DRAW AND LABEL A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE
STRUCTURE OF A DICOTYLEDONOUS ANIMAL-
POLLINATED FLOWER

3. 9.3.2 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN POLLINATION,
FERTILISATION AND SEED DISPERSAL
 Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma (usually of another plant), often facilitated by animals,
wind or water movement
 Fertilisation: Fusion of the male gamete nuclei (in the pollen
grain) with the female gamete (in the ovule) to form a zygote
 Seed Dispersal: Fertilised ovules form seeds which move away
from the parental plant before germination, reducing
competition for resources
 There are a variety of seed dispersal mechanisms, including fruit,
wind, water and animals

4. 9.3.3 DRAW AND LABEL A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF A NAMED
DICOTYLEDONOUS SEED
Pea Seed
(Pisum Sativum)

5. 9.3.4 EXPLAIN THE CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR THE
GERMINATION OF A TYPICAL SEED
 Germination is the process by which a seed emerges from a period
of dormancy and starts to sprout
 For germination to occur, a seed requires a combination of:
 Oxygen: For aerobic respiration (need ATP in order to grow)
 Water: To metabolically activate the cells
 Temperature: For the optimal function of enzymes
 In addition, particular seed species may require other specialised
conditions, such as:
• Fire • Light or darkness • Freezing • Prior animal
digestion • Erosion of the seed coat
• Washing (to remove inhibitors)

6. 9.3.5 OUTLINE THE METABOLIC PROCESSES DURING
GERMINATION OF A STARCHY SEED

7.  The first step in the germination process is the absorption of
water, which causes gibberellin - or gibberellic acid (GA) - to be
produced
 Gibberellin causes the synthesis of amylase, which breaks down
starch into maltose
 Maltose is transported to the embryo, where it is either hydrolysed
to glucose (for energy) or polymerised to cellulose (for cell wall
formation)
 Stored proteins and lipids will also be hydrolysed by the addition
of water to form enzymes, triglycerides and phospholipids
 Germination uses the food stored in cotyledons as an energy
source until the developing shoot reaches the light and can
begin to photosynthesise

8. 9.3.6 EXPLAIN HOW FLOWERING IS CONTROLLED IN
LONG DAY AND SHORT DAY PLANTS, INCLUDING THE
ROLE OF PHYTOCHROME
Flowering is controlled by phytochrome, which is affected by
light (photoperiodicity)
Phytochrome exists in two forms:
 A red (Pr) form absorbs red light (~660 nm) and is converted into a
far red form (Pfr)
 A far red (Pfr) form absorbs far red light (~730 nm) and is converted
into a red form (Pr)
The Pfr form is the active form of phytochrome, while
the Pr form is the inactive form of phytochrome

9. Sunlight contains more red light, so the Pfr form is
predominant during the day, with the gradual
reversion to the Pr form occurring at night
In long day plants, the active Pfr form is a promoter of
flowering and so flowering is induced when the night
period is less than a critical length and Pfr levels are
high
In short day plants, the active Pfr form is an inhibitor of
flowering and so flowering is induced when the night
period is greater than a critical length and Pfr levels
are low

10. THE CONTROL OF FLOWERING IN PLANTS