beautifully explained about various theories of learning

1. Presenter:Dr.S.Santhosh goud
DNB Resident,VIMHANS
Chairperson;Dr.S.Naveen
Guest faculty
Manassanthi hospital

2.  Learning-changes and modifications in the behavior
of the individual which he undergoes from his birth
till death
 Learning is modification of behavior to meet
environmental requirements(Gardener murphy,1968)
 Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the
strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result
of experience(Henry smith 1962)
 Learning is the process by which behavior is originated
or changes through practice or training(Pressy and
Robbins,1967)

3.  Learning is the process by which an activity originates
or is changed through reacting to an encountered
situation, provided that the characteristics of the
changes in activity cannot be explained on the basis of
native response,tendencies,maturation,or temporary
states of the organism(Hilgard,1958)
 Learning is a Process which brings Relatively
Permanent Changes in the Behavior of a Learner
through Experience or Practice

4. CHARACTERISTICS
 It is a process
 Involves all the experiences and trainings which helps to
produce changes in behavior
 The changes may be positive or negative
 Helps in adjustment and adaptation
 Purposeful and goal oriented
 Covers all the aspects of mind
 Universal and continuous
 It does not include the changes in behavior on account of
maturation,fatigue,illness or drugs

5. t
y
p
e
learning maturation Fatigue drugs
illness
c
h
ar
a
ct
er
s
Process brought by training or
experience
Relatively permanent changes
No role of practice
or learning
Unfolding of
inherited traits
Transitory in
nature
unstable

6. Types of learning
 Verbal learning
 Motor learning
 Concept learning
 Problem solving
 Serial learning
 Paired associate learning

7. Behaviorism
 Learner is passive, responding to environmental
stimuli
 Learner starts off as a clean slate and behavior is
shaped through reinforcement and punishment
 Radical behaviorism
 By skinner, role of emotions and mediating structures

8. Cognitivism
 Humans are not programmed animals
 Learning needs active participation with processing of
information with mental faculties of
thinking,memory,knowing and problem solving.

9. Constructivism
 Learning is an active contextualized process of
constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it
 Knowledge is constructed upon personal experience
and hypothesis of environment

10. Humanism
 It focuses on human freedom,dignity and potential.
 Humans act with intentionality and values

11. Behavioral
 Thorndike’s trail and error
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
Cognitive
 Insightful learning
 Field theory of learning
 Tolman’s cognitive maps
 Social learning

13.  Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning or
respondent conditioning) is a kind of learning that
occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (US).
 Usually, the CS is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a
tuning fork), the US is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of
food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the US is an
unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is
repeated (some learning may occur already after only one
pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned response
(CR) to the CS when the CS is presented alone. The CR is
usually similar to the UR , but unlike the UR, it must be
acquired through experience and is relatively
impermanent.

14.  While studying physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov
developed a procedure that enabled him to study the
digestive processes of animals over long periods of
time. He redirected the animal’s digestive fluids
outside the body, where they could be measured.
Pavlov noticed that the dogs in the experiment began
to salivate in the presence of the technician who
normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the
presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipated
salivation, psychic secretion.

15.  From his observations he predicted that a stimulus
could become associated with food and cause
salivation on its own, if a particular stimulus in the
dog's surroundings was present when the dog was
given food.
 The timing between the presentation of the CS and US
affects both the learning and the performance of the
conditioned response. Pavlov found that the shorter
the interval between the ringing of the bell and the
appearance of the food, the stronger and quicker the
dog learned the conditioned response.

16.  Forward conditioning
 Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During
forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the
onset of the US in order to signal that the US will
follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning
are delay and trace conditioning.

17.  Delay conditioning: In delay conditioning the CS is
presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the
US. The difference between trace conditioning and
delay conditioning is that in the delayed procedure the
CS and US overlap.

18.  Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning the
CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS begins and
ends before the US is presented. The stimulus-free
period is called the trace interval. It may also be called
the conditioning interval. For example: If you sound a
buzzer for 5 seconds and then, a second later, puff air
into a person’s eye, the person will blink. After several
pairings of the buzzer and puff the person will blink at
the sound of the buzzer alone

19.  Principles of classical conditioning
 Acquisition
 Extinction
 Recovery from extinction
 Stimulus generalization
 Stimulus discrimination
 Blocking

20.  Acquisition-depends upon number of times the
conditoned and uncondtioned stmuli are paired
 Magnitude,latency and probability of occurance of the
conditioned response
 Ideal time intervel is 0.5secs

21.  Stimulus generalization-once conditioning has taken
place for a given conditioned stimulus, the organism
tends to respond in the similar fashion to other stimuli
resembling the already conditioned cs.
 Discrimination-when one of two similar stimuli is
followed by a ucs while the other is not, the tendency
to respond to the first stimulus is strengthened, while
tendency to respond to the second is weakened
 Initially the individual learns to pay attention to the
appropriate stimulate dimensions and later the
conditioned responses are attached to the cs.

22.  Extinction and -when a cs is presented repeatedly
without it being followed by a ucs,the ability of the cs
to elicit crs decreases.
 spontaneous recovery-If the cs is presented again at a
later time,its ability to evoke crs reappears.

23.  Classical conditioning mere contiguity or cognitive
processing?
 Pairing of cs-ucs makes cs as a signal
 Explained by blocking experiments in which subjects
are exposed to repeated pairings of a light and
electical shock until the light becomes a cs.
 A second stimulus is then added so that both the light
and noise occur together prior to the shock.

24.  When the sound is later presented alone. it does not
elicit a conditioned response
 It was blocked due to previous conditioning to light
 In cognitive perspective ,it is explained that the light
already predicts the occurrence of the shock, the new
stimulus is irrelevant because it provides no new
information. since the new stimulus does not add to
the subjects ability to predict the shock, it fails to
become a conditioned stimulus.

25.  Neural basis of learning and memory
 Pavlov proposed that conditioning involved a
connection between brain centers for conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli. His physiological account of
conditioning has been abandoned, but classical
conditioning continues to be studied in attempts to
understand the neural structures and functions that
underlie learning and memory. Forms of classical
conditioning that are used for this purpose include,
among others, fear conditioning, eyeblink
conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of
Hermissenda crassicornis, a sea-slug.

26.  Behavioral therapies
 Some therapies associated with classical conditioning are aversion therapy,
systematic desensitization and flooding.
 Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to make patients give
up an undesirable habit by causing them to associate it with an unpleasant
effect.
 Systematic desensitization is a treatment for phobias in which the patient is
trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking
stimuli.
 Flooding attempts to eliminate an unwanted CR. This type of behavior therapy
is a form of desensitization for treating phobias and anxieties by repeated
exposure to highly distressing stimuli until the lack of reinforcement of the
anxiety response causes its extinction. It is usually with actual exposure to the
stimuli, with implosion used for imagined exposure, but the two terms are
sometimes used synonymously.
 Conditioning therapies usually take less time than humanistic therapies

27.  Conditioned drug response
 A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may
eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of
the drug. This is sometimes the case with caffeine; habitual coffee drinkers may
find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In other cases, the
conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects
of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to
pain, the compensatory conditioned reaction may be one that makes the user
more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to drug
tolerance. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in
order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In
this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be
absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example,
if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli
provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then
an overdose reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different
location where the conditioned stimuli are absent

28.  Conditioned hunger
 Signals that consistently precede food intake can become
conditioned stimuli for a set of bodily responses that prepares
the body for food and digestion. These reflexive responses
include the secretion of digestive juices into the stomach and the
secretion of certain hormones into the blood stream, and they
induce a state of hunger.
 An example of conditioned hunger is the "appetizer effect." Any
signal that consistently precedes a meal, such as a clock
indicating that it is time for dinner, can cause people to feel
hungrier than before the signal. The lateral hypothalamus (LH)
is involved in the initiation of eating. The nigrostriatal pathway,
which includes the substantia nigra, the lateral hypothalamus,
and the basal ganglia have been shown to be involved in hunger
motivation

29.  Conditioned emotional response
 The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses
such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example
is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food
that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly,
when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the
result may be a conditioned fear of dogs.
 As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual
from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity.
Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause
sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact. For example,
sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus
like a picture of a jar of pennies, with views of an erotic film clip. Similar
experiments involving blue gourami fish and domesticated quail have shown
that such conditioning can increase the number of offspring. These results
suggest that conditioning techniques might help to increase fertility rates in
infertile individuals and endangered species

30.  "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man
and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors."
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

31.  The term behaviorism refers to the school of
psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the
belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and
changed.
 Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a
theory of learning based upon the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses
to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.

32.  According to this school of thought, behavior can be
studied in a systematic and observable manner with
no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests
that only observable behaviors should be studied,
since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and
moods are too subjective.

33.  The "Little Albert" experiment was a famous
psychology experiment conducted by behaviorist John
B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Raynor.
 Watson was interested in taking Pavlov's research
further to show that emotional reactions could be
classically conditioned in people.

34.  Around the age of nine months, Watson and Rayner
exposed the child to a series of stimuli including a
white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks and burning
newspapers and observed the boy's reactions. The boy
initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was
shown.
 The next time Albert was exposed the rat, Watson
made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a
hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing
the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat
with the loud noise, Albert began to cry simply after
seeing the rat.

35.  The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry.
Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on
[his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl
away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before
reaching the edge of the table.“
 Stimulus Generalization in the Little Albert
Experiment
 In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses
could be conditioned in humans, Watson and Rayner also
observed that stimulus generalization had occurred. After
conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a
wide variety of similar white objects as well. His fear
included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat
and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

36.  Criticisms of the Little Albert Experiment
 While the experiment is one of psychology's most
famous and is included in nearly every introductory
psychology course, it has also been criticized widely
for several reasons. First, the experimental design and
process was not carefully constructed. Watson and
Rayner did not develop an object means to evaluate
Albert's reactions, instead relying on their own
subjective interpretations. Secondly, the experiment
also raises many ethical concerns. The Little Albert
experiment could not be conducted by today's
standards because it would be unethical.

38.  Thorndike's Puzzle Box Procedure
Thorndike placed a hungry cat inside a "puzzle box" with
food outside. Initially, the cat would become agitated and
produce many different "random" behaviours in an attempt
to get out of the cage. Eventually, the cat would press the
paddle by chance, the door would open and the cat could
escape and get the food. The cat would then be placed
inside the box again and would again take a long time (on
average) to escape after exhibiting many different
behaviours
 Stages in process of learning
 Drive goal block random movements chance success
Selection fixation

39.  Thorndike proposed a general theory of
learning which is called the Law of Effect. This law of
effect states that:
"The consequences of a response determine
whether the tendency to perform it is strengthened or
weakened. If the response is followed by a satisfying
event (e.g., access to food), it will be strengthened; if
the response is not followed by a satisfying event, it
will be weakened.

40.  The Law of Effect starts with the assumption that
when an animal encounters a
new environment, it will initially produce largely
random behaviors (e.g., scratching, digging, etc.). Over
repeated trials, the animal will gradually associate
some of these behaviors with good things (e.g., access
to food) and these behaviors will be more likely to
occur again.
 In Thorndike's terms, these behaviors are "stamped
in". Other behaviors that have no useful consequences
are "stamped out“.

41.  Thorndike's view of learning-the animal simply learns
to associate certain behaviors with satisfaction such
that these behaviors become more likely to occur.
Thorndike called this type of learning instrumental
learning. The animal learns to produce a response
that is instrumental in getting satisfaction.

43.  B. F. Skinner replaced the term instrumental learning
with the term operarant learning refined
Thorndike's terminology and methodology to fit the
new paradigm in psychology -- Behaviorism as well as
Ernst Mach's paradigmitic contribution to physics
Operationalism. He began by elucidating differences
between Pavlovian/Watsonian type classical
conditioning and his operant learning--showing that
they were fundamentally different processes.

44.  In operant learning:
a biologically significant event is followed by a
response, not a stimulus,a consequence of that
response alters the strength of association between a
neutral stimulus context (e.g., the operant chamber)
and a quite arbitrary response (e.g., pressing the
paddle). The response is not any part of a reflex and
so Skinner termed it a behavior rather than a
response to distinguish it from Pavlovian
Conditioning

45.  Skinner replaced Thorndike's term instrumental
responses with the term operant responses or
simply operants because they operate on the world to
produce a consequence (feedback from the world that
has just been operated on). He also referred to
instrumental learning as operant learning.
 In operant conditioning, behavior is also affected by
its consequences, but the process is not trial-and-error
learning.

46.  Operant learning : The process through which the
consequence of an operant (behavior) affects the
likelihood that the behavior will be produced again in
the future. Unlike reflexes, operant behaviors can be
accomplished in a number of ways and are what we
normally think of as voluntary actions.

47.  In operant learning, the emphasis is on the
consequences of a motor act rather than the act in and
of itself. Skinner, like Thorndike, believed in the Law
of Effect. He believed that the tendency to emit an
operant behavior is strengthened or weakened by the
consequences of the response.

48. Classical respondent conditioning Operant conditioning
Learning of respondent behavior Learning of operant behavior
S conditioning stimulus is important in
eliciting response
R Type conditioning as the emphasis on
the response
Beginning with specific stimuli that
bring certain responses
Beginning made with responses as they
occur naturally /unnaturally ,shaping
them into existence
Strength of conditioning determined by
magnitude of the conditioned response
Strength of conditioning shown by the
response rate

49.  Skinner Box
Skinner developed a new method for studying operant
learning using what is
commonly called a "Skinner box". Skinner boxes are
also called operant chambers

50.  A Skinner box is a cage with a lever or some other
mechanism that the animal can operate to produce some
effect, such as the delivery of a small amount of food. The
advantage of the Skinner box over Thorndike's puzzle box
is that the animal does not have to be replaced into the
cage on each trial. With the Skinner box, the animal is left
in the box for the experimental session and is free to
respond whenever it wishes.
 Skinner and his followers argued that virtually everything
we do can be understood as operant or instrumental
responses that occur because of their past reinforcement
and that this is independent of whether or not we are aware
of the consequences of our behavior.

51. Skinner believed that operant behavior (i.e., operant responses) is determined by
its consequences. He identified four possible consequences of behavior:
1) Positive Reinforcement
Any stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior
2) Negative Reinforcement
Any stimulus whose removal increases the probability of a behavior.
2)
3) Positive Punishment
Any stimulus whose presence (as opposed to absence in -ve
reinforcement) decreases the probability of behavior.
3)
4) Negative Punishment
Any stimulus whose removal decreases the probability of a behavior.

52.  Reinforcement increases the behavior
 Positive –gives something rewarding
 Negatives-removes something aversive
 Punishment decreases the behavior
 Positive-gives something aversive
 Negative-removes something rewarding

54.  In most cases reinforcement refers to an enhancement
of behavior but this term may also refer to an
enhancement of memory. One example of this effect is
called post-training reinforcement where a stimulus
(e.g. food) given shortly after a training session
enhances the learning.

55.  Primary reinforcers
 A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned
reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function
as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function
through the evolution and its role in species' survival.
 Ex;-sleep, food, air, water, and sex.
 While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and
across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary
reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics,
experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while
another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food while
another eats very little. So even though food is a primary
reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer
differs between them.

56.  Secondary reinforcers
 A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned
reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its
function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that
functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary
reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as
money).
 A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has
obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many
other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a
wide-variety of motivating operations. (One example of
this is money because it is paired with many other
reinforcers).

57.  Reinforcement Schedules in Operant
Conditioning
A major area of research in Operant Learning is on the
effects of different reinforcement schedules. The first
distinction is between partial and continuous
reinforcement.
Continuous Reinforcement: every response is
reinforced
Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement: only some
responses are reinforced.

58.  Intermittent reinforcements
 Pigeons experimented on in a scientific study were
more responsive to intermittent reinforcements,
than positive reinforcements. In other words,
pigeons were more prone to act when they only
sometimes could get what they wanted. This effect was
such that behavioral responses were maximized when
the reward rate was at 50% (in other words, when the
uncertainty was maximized), and would gradually
decline toward values on either side of 50%.

59.  In initial training, continuous reinforcement is the most efficient
but after a response is learned, the animal will continue to
perform with partial reinforcement. Extinction is slower
following partial reinforcement than following continuous
reinforcement. Skinner and others have described four basic
schedules of partial reinforcement which have different effects
on the rate and pattern of responding.
Ratio schedules: reinforcer given after some number of
responses.
Interval schedules: reinforcer given after some time period.
Fixed: the number of responses or time period is held constant.
Variable: the number of responses or the time period is varied
around a mean

60.  Typical Behavior with the 4 Schedules
Fixed-Ratio: bursts of responses.
Variable-Ratio: extremely high, steady rate of responding.
(Slot machines work on a VR schedule). Known to produce
extreme behavior patterns categorized as compulsive or
addictive behavior patterns
Fixed-Interval: pauses with accelerating responses as the
time approaches (the "scallop effect").
Variable-Interval: after training, a slow, steady pattern of
responses is usually seen.
Response rate is generally higher with the ratio schedules.

61.  The Premack principle is a special case of
reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which
states that a highly-preferred activity can be used
effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.
 Also known as grandma principle

62.  In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural
Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying
reinforcement into events that increase frequency of
an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior
itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency
by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a
token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for
certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a
negotiable value.

63.  Shaping -reinforcement of successive approximations
to a desired instrumental response.

64.  Chaining-involves linking discrete behaviors together
in a series, such that each result of each behavior is
both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the
previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for
the next behavior. There are many ways to teach
chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the
first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining
(starting from the last behavior) and total task
chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from
beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps).

65.  Persuasive communication & the reinforcement
theory
Persuasion influences any person the way they think,
act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how people
understand the concern, position and needs of the
people.
Process of persuasion relates how you influence people
with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership,
qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an
interactive process while getting the work done by
others.

66.  Examples for persuasion skills in real time.
 Interview: you can prove your best talents, skills and
expertise.
 Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the
goals or targets.
 Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for
the improvement in the operations.
 Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital
roles of persuasion.
 Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place
when one individual expects some particular response from
one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to
secure the response through the use of communication.

67.  Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may
not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added
and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the
reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement is not punishment. The two, as explained
above, differ in the increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease
(punishment) of the future probability of a response. However, in
negative reinforcement, the stimulus is an aversive stimulus, which if
presented contingent on a response, may also function as a positive
punisher.
 The increase in behavior is independent of (i.e. not related to) whether
or not the organism finds the reinforcer to be pleasant or aversive.
Example: A child is given detention for acting up in school, but the
frequency of the bad behavior increases. Thus, the detention is a
reinforcer (could be positive or negative) even if the detention is not a
pleasant stimuli, perhaps because the child now feels like a "rebel" or
sees it as an opportunity to get out of class.

68.  Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive
and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for
the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and
eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a
negative feeling).
 Both positive and negative reinforcement increase
behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn to
follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative
reinforcement

69.  The experimental analysis of operant behavior has led to a
technology often called behavior modification. It
usually consists of changing the consequences of behavior,
removing consequences which have caused trouble, or
arranging new consequences for behavior which has lacked
strength. Historically, people have been controlled
primarily through negative reinforcement that is, they have
been punished when they have not done what is
reinforcing to those who could punish them. Positive
reinforcement has been less often used, partly because its
effect is slightly deferred, but it can be as effective as
negative reinforcement and has many fewer unwanted
byproducts.

71. Edward Tolman showed the flaws in the law of effect
as well as radical Behaviorism as promoted by Skinner
and his followers and explained the mechanism of
mental mapping in learning.
Tolman was an "S-S" (stimulus-stimulus), non-reinforcement
theorist: he drew on Gestalt psychology
to argue that animals could learn the connections
between stimuli and did not need any explicit
biologically significant event to make learning occur.
This is known as latent learning

73.  He introduced concept of cognitive maps(1948), which has
found extensive application in almost every field of
psychology.
 Tolman assessed both response learning and place
learning. Response learning is when the rat knows that the
response of going a certain way in the maze will always lead
to food; place learning is when the rats learn to associate
the food in a specific spot each time.
 In his trials he observed that all of the rats in the place-learning
maze learned to run the correct path within eight
trials and that none of the response-learning rats learned
that quickly, and some did not even learn it at all after
seventy-two trials.

74.  Tolman's theoretical model was described in his paper "The
Determiners of Behavior at a Choice Point".
 The three different variables that influence behavior are:
independent, intervening, and dependent variables. The
experimenter can manipulate the independent variables;
these independent variables (e.g., stimuli provided) in turn
influence the intervening variables (e.g., motor skill,
appetite). Independent variables are also factors of the
subject that the experimenter specifically chooses for. The
dependent variables (e.g., speed, number of errors) allows
the psychologist to measure the strength of the intervening
variables.

75.  Information Processing Theory (G. Miller)

George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are
fundamental to cognitive psychology and the information
processing framework.
The first concept is "chunking" and the capacity of short
term memory. Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term
memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information
(seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful
unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions,
or people's faces. The concept of chunking and the limited
capacity of short term memory became a basic element of
all subsequent theories of memory.

76.  The second concept is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit)
proposed by Miller, Galanter & Pribram (1960). Miller
et al. suggested that TOTE should replace the
stimulus-response as the basic unit of behavior. In a
TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been
achieved and if not an operation is performed to
achieve the goal; this cycle of test-operate is repeated
until the goal is eventually achieved or abandoned.
The TOTE concept provided the basis of many
subsequent theories of problem solving and
production systems.

77.  For explaining higher cognitive abilities
 Learning is processing and giving response
 Wolfgang kohler originated insightful learning
 Gestalt school

78.  Learning is purposive, exploratory and creative
enterprise
 Learner perceives the situation as a whole and after
seeing and evaluating the different relationships takes
the proper decision in an intelligent view(insight)
 Kohler's experiments with chimpanzees showed
learning by insight(Mentality of Apes 1925)

81.  The chimpanzees used higher problem solving
abilities.
 Identifying the problem
 Organizing the perceptual field and
 Using insight to solve the problems

82. Cognitive learning depends on
 Experience
 Intelligence
 Learning situation
 Initial efforts
 Repetition and generalization

84.  Social learning posits that learning is a cognitive process
that takes place in a social context and can occur purely
through observation or direct instruction, even in the
absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.
 In addition to the observation of behavior(Pure Modeling -
no one gets rewarded or punished), learning also occurs
through the observation of rewards and punishments, a
process known as vicarious reinforcement. The theory
expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which
behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing
emphasis on the important roles of various internal
processes in the learning individual social learning.

85.  Bandura began to conduct studies of the rapid
acquisition of novel behaviors via social observation,
the most famous of which were the Bobo doll
experiments.

86.  Bobo doll experiments
 In 1961, Bandura and colleagues published the first
paper on the results of the now-famous Bobo doll
experiments.The Bobo doll is a child-sized inflatable
doll with a weighted bottom that causes it to pop back
up after being knocked down. In the first iteration of
these studies, preschool-aged children were divided
into three groups: one group that observed an adult
behaving aggressively towards the Bobo doll
(punching, kicking, striking with a mallet, yelling),
another group that observed the adult playing
peacefully, and a control group.

87.  To control for possible peer influences, each participant
viewed their assigned scenario individually. Later, the child
was allowed to play independently in the play room which
contained a variety of aggressive and non-aggressive toys,
including the Bobo doll. Participants’ acts of verbal and
physical aggression toward the Bobo doll were then
recorded. Results revealed significant group differences,
such that children exposed to the aggressive model were
more likely to imitate what they had seen and behave
aggressively toward the doll.Bandura and colleagues argued
that the results supported that children could rapidly
acquire novel behaviors through the process of observation
and imitation, and this occurred even in the absence of any
kind of reinforcement.

89.  Subsequent variations on the original experiment
provided additional insights into the social nature of
learning. In a 1963 paper, Bandura and colleagues
demonstrated that children imitated aggressive
behavior witnessed on video, in addition to live
observation, and children also imitated aggressive
behaviors enacted by a cartoon character.An
additional study, published in 1965, showed that
witnessing the model being punished for the
aggressive behavior decreased the likelihood that
children would imitate the behavior, a process he
referred to as vicarious reinforcement.

90.  Social learning theory integrated behavioral and
cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a
comprehensive model that could account for the wide
range of learning experiences that occur in the real
world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in
1963 and further detailed in 1977, key tenets of social
learning theory are as follows:

91.  Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process
that takes place in a social context.
 Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the
consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
 Learning involves observation, extraction of information from
those observations, and making decisions about the
performance of the behavior (observational learning or
modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable
change in behavior.
 Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely
responsible for learning.
 The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition,
environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other
(reciprocal determinism).

92.  Social learning theory draws heavily on the concept of
modeling, or learning by observing a behavior.
 Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:
 Live model-in which an actual person is demonstrating the
desired behavior
 Verbal instruction-in which an individual describes the
desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in
how to engage in the behavior
 Symbolic-in which modeling occurs by means of the
media, including movies, television, Internet, literature,
and radio. Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters.

93.  Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model,
as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:[3]
Attention
 In order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Attention is impacted
by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal,
past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty,
affective valence, and functional value).
Retention
 In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features
of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive
capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity).
Reproduction
 To reproduce a behavior, the observer must organize responses in accordance with the
model. Observer characteristics affecting reproduction include physical and cognitive
capabilities and previous performance.
Motivation
 The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is
dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated
consequences and internal standards

95.  An important factor in social learning theory is the
concept of reciprocal determinism. This notion
states that just as an individual’s behavior is
influenced by the environment, the environment is
also influenced by the individual’s behavior. In other
words, a person’s behavior, environment, and personal
qualities all reciprocally influence each other.

96.  Criminology
 Social learning theory has been used to explain the
emergence and maintenance of deviant behavior,
especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers
and Robert Burgess integrated the principles of social
learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin
Sutherland's Differential Association Theory to create
a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior.

97.  Developmental psychology
 In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H.
Miller lists both moral development and gender-role
development as important areas of research within social
learning theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable
behavior regarding the acquisition of these two skills. For
gender-role development, the same-sex parent provides only one
of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles.
Social learning theory also emphasizes the variable nature of
moral development due to the changing social circumstances of
each decision: "The particular factors the child thinks are
important vary from situation to situation, depending on
variables such as which situational factors are operating, which
causes are most salient, and what the child processes cognitively.
Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and
weighing various criteria in a given social situation.

98.  Management
 Social Learning theory proposes that rewards aren't
the sole force behind creating motivation. Thoughts,
beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us.
Three other ways in which we learn are vicarious
experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological
states.
 Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone's
behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the
learning process as well as mental states and the
cognitive process.

99.  Media violence
 Principles of social learning theory have been applied
extensively to the study of media violence. Akers and
Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced
positive rewards and lack of punishment for
aggressive behaviors reinforces aggression. Many
research studies have discovered significant correlations
between viewing violent television and aggression later in
life, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive
behaviors.The role of observational learning has also been
cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for
TV, movies, and video games.

100.  Psychotherapy
 Another important application of social learning theory
has been in the treatment and conceptualization of
anxiety disorders. The classical conditioning approach to
anxiety disorders, which spurred the development of
behavioral therapy and is considered by some to be the first
modern theory of anxiety,began to lose steam in the late
1970s as researchers began to question its underlying
assumptions. For example, the classical conditioning
approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are
developed through direct learning; however, many people
with anxiety disorders cannot recall a traumatic
conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was
experienced in close temporal and spatial contiguity with
an intrinsically aversive stimulus.

101.  Social learning theory helped salvage learning approaches
to anxiety disorders by providing additional mechanisms
beyond classical conditioning that could account for the
acquisition of fear. For example, social learning theory
suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes by
observing a family member express fear in response to
snakes. Alternatively, the child could learn the associations
between snakes and unpleasant bites through direct
experience, without developing excessive fear, but could
later learn from others that snakes can have deadly venom,
leading to a re-evaluation of the dangerousness of snake
bites, and accordingly, a more exaggerated fear response to
snakes.

102.  School Psychology
 Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of
social learning to enhance students' knowledge acquisition and
retention. For example, using the technique of guided
participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to
repeat the phrase. Thus, students both imitate and reproduce
the teacher's action, aiding retention. An extension of guided
participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and
teacher share responsibility in leading discussions.
 Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of
students by modelling appropriate behavior and visibly
rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the
teacher's role as model and encouraging the students to adopt
the position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and
practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes

103.  Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of practice or experience
 Classical conditioning-a neutral cs regularly precedes
an us that evokes an ur, as a result the previosly neutral
cs now begins a response.this response now known as
cr
 Instrumental learning-an action of the learner is
instrumental learning in bringing about a change in
the environment that makes the action more or less
likely to occur in the future.

104.  An environmental event that is the consequence of an
instrumental response and that makes the response
more likely to occur again is known as reinforcer.
 Cognitive learning refers to change in the way
information is processed as a result of experience a
person or animal has had.
 Cognitive maps,latent learning,insight learning,and
imitation are examples

105.  The principles of learning may not be general as
previously thought.application of laws of learning
must take into consideration both the characterstics of
learner and the response being learned.
 Sources
 General Psychology-S.K.Mangal
 Introduction To Psychology-King and Morgan

106.  Thank you