1. FOUNDRY ENGINEERING
(Met 207)
•To Be Taught By : Dr Ather Ibrahim
•Books:
•Principles of Metal casting by Philip C Rosenthal
•Foundry Engineering by Beely
•Foundry Engineering by Campbell
•Foundry Technology by Peter Beely
•Metallurgical Principles
of Foundry Castings by Campbell J.
3. Casting
mold pour liquid metal solidify, remove finish
Casting is a manufacturing process in which molten/liquid
material is poured into a mold containing a cavity of specific
shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then
taken out and cleaned to complete the process
4. • VERSATILE:
•complex geometry, internal cavities/ external shapes, hollow
sections
•Wide range of Weight and size
•small (~10 grams) very large parts (100 tones)
•Teeth Zipper (few mm) Ocean Liner Propeller (10 m)
•Net Shape, Near Net Shape
•Any Metal (that can be melt)
•Some metal can only be cast
•Simplified Construction
•Some Engineering properties are only possible in casting
•Isotropic
•Machinability
•Damping capacity
•Good Bearing qualities
•Strength and Lightness
• ECONOMICAL:
•little wastage (extra metal is re-used) Low cost
•Suitable for mass production
Advantages
6. History
Casting is a 6000 year old process.
Earliest castings include the 11 cm high bronze dancing girl found at
Mohen-jo-daro(dated about 3000 BC).
The remains of the Harappan civilization contain kilns for smelting copper
ingots, casting tools, stone moulds, cast ornaments and other items of
copper, gold, silver and lead.
Iron pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls dated 2000 BC
Another oldest casting is a copper frog dated 3200 BC discovered in
Mesopotamia
The Iron Pillar of Delhi, standing 23 feet, weighing 6 tonnes and
containing iron, is a remarkable example of metallurgical science in 5th century AD
7. Types of Foundries
•Based on material
• Ferrous , Non ferrous, gray Iron, Steel, Brass, Light metal
•Based on nature and Organisational Framework
•Jobbing foundry(A foundry that creates a wide variety of
castings, in small quantities for a range of customers)
•Production foundry
•Semi Production foundry
•Captive foundry(A foundry operation that is wholly
incorporated into a larger manufacturing operation)
•Independent foundry
8. Casting Process
• Preparing a mold cavity of the desired shape with
proper allowances and provided with means for
the escape of air or gases.
• Melting the metal with acceptable quality and
temperature.
• Pouring the metal into the cavity.
• Solidification process designed and controlled to
avoid defects.
• Casting removal.
• Finishing, cleaning and inspection operations.
9. Process Selection
Design and Specification
Determination of Casting Technique
Pattern MakingMoulding Material
Preparation
Furnace Charge
Preparation
Moulding & Core making Metal Melting
Casting
Fettling
Heat Treatment & Finishing
Inspection & Testing
Black Casting
Flow Diagram
for Casting
Production
11. Different Casting Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher
production rate
limited part size connecting rods, gear
housings
Expendable
pattern
Wide range of metals, sizes,
shapes
patterns have low
strength
cylinder heads, brake
components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface
finish
non-ferrous metals, low
production rate
prototypes of
mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy,
good finish
small sizes impellers, injection
mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery
Permanent
mold
good finish, low porosity, high
production rate
Costly mold, simpler
shapes only
gears, gear housings
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy,
high production rate
costly dies, small parts,
non-ferrous metals
gears, camera bodies,
car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good
quality
Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
flywheels
15. [ )]()( 0 mplfms
TTCHTTCVH −++−= ρ
Where
H = Total heat Required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring
temperature, J (Btu)
ρ = Density g/cm3
Cs= Weight Specific Heat for the Solid Metal J/g-o
C
Hf = Heat of Fusion J/g
Cl= Weight Specific Heat for the Liquid Metal J/g-o
C
Tm, Tp, To = Melting, pouring and ambient temperature respectively
V = Volume
A Good Approximation!
Why?
Heating of Metal
16. • Specific Heat and other Thermal Properties of a Solid Metal Vary with
Temperature Especially if the Metal Undergoes a Change of Phase During
Heating
• A Metal Specific Heat may be Different in the Solid and Liquid States
• Most Casting Metals are Alloys; Thus Heat of Fusion Cannot be Applied so
Simply
• The Property Values Required may not be Available for All Alloys
• There are Significant Heat Losses to the Environment During Heating
17. Factors Affecting the Pouring Operation
Pouring Temperature (Super Heat)
Pouring Rate (Slow excessive)
Turbulence
Re = Vd/v
V = mean velocity
d = Linear dimension of the mould channel section
v = kinematic viscosity of the liquid
18. 2
2
22
21
2
12
1
22
F
g
vP
hF
g
vP
h +++=+++
ρρ
Where
h= Head cm
P = Pressure on the liquid N/cm2
ρ = Density g/cm3
v = Flow velocity cm/s
g = Gravitational Acceleration Constant
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Continuity Law
Q = V1A1=V2A2
Mould Filling Time
MFT = V/Q
27. Solidification
• During solidification process a series of events occur
which affect
– Size & shape of grains formed
– Influences overall properties
• In general casting results in reasonably uniform grain
structure
• Some difference between
– Pure metals
– alloys
28. Solidification – Pure Metals
• Solidifies at constant temperature
– Must give off latent heat of fusion before phase
change
• Rapid cooling at mold edge
– Skin/shell – fine grains
– Slower in the middle – columnar grains
29. Characteristics of Molten Metal
• Viscosity
– How runny is it when hot
• Surface Tension
– Development of film
30. Casting Parameters
• Mold Design
– Risers, runners, gates, etc.
• Mold Material
– Thermal conductivity
– Roughness of its surface
• Rate of Pouring
• Degree of superheating
– How far above melting point
31. Fluidity of Molten Metals
• Fluidity – capability of molten metal to fill
mold cavity
• Two basic factors
– Characteristics of molten metal
– Casting parameters
32. Factor Affecting Fluidity
Pouring Temperature
Metal Composition
Viscosity
Heat Transfer to Surroundings
Volume Specific Heat
Latent Heat Of Fusion
Thermal Conductivity of the Alloy
33. a = Crucible
b= Electric resistance furnace
c= Fluidity test channel
d= Pressure reservoir
e= Manometer
f= Cartesian manostat
Vacuum Fluidity Test Apparatus
34. Influence of Superheat on fluidity
• Super heat
• Duration of flow depends upon the
amount of heat to be removed before
onset of solidification
35. Composition and Fluidity
• Pure Metal High fluidity
• Alloys
• Solid solution with long freezing range poor fluidity
• Eutectic High fluidity
41. Solidification - Alloys
• Solidify with a temperature range
– Produces a mushy or pasty state
• Cooling rate effects
– Slow – coarse structures/grains
– Fast – fine structures/grains
• In general as grain size decreases
– Strength and ductility increase
– Shrinkage voids decrease
– Cracking during solidification decreases
42. Solidification of Alloys
• Most alloys freeze over a temperature range
• Phase diagram for a Cu Ni alloy system and‑
cooling curve for a 50%Ni 50%Cu composition‑
44. Schematic representation of temperature distribution in plane front solidification
Thermal conditions suitable for
production of columnar structure
Positive thermal gradient at the
solid liquid interface
Interface advancing as the TG
(growth) is reached
Flat plane is formed when
cooling rate is slow and temp
gradient is steep
Latent heat is insufficient
45. Thermal conditions with reversal of temperature gradient in liquid adjoining interface
Latent heat is sufficient to
reverse the temperature
gradient at the interface
in such lowest temperature in
the liquid is no longer adjacent
to the interface therefore
growth mode changes from
plane front advancement to
deposition in regions of greater
undercooling and thus
microscopic heat flow becomes
important
47. Equilibrium distribution of solute
between solid and liquid phases at
successive stages of unidirectional
freezing
48. Concentration of solute in liquid ahead
of advancing interface- non equilibrium
conditions
a)Solute distribution CL
b)Equilibrium liquidus temperature TE
corresponding to solute content at
distance D from solidification interface
49. Relation of temperature gradient in liquid to equilibrium freezing temperature profile
Constitutional undercooling
Temperature and compositional
gradients in the liquid are the
important influencing factors on
both grain and substructure of
casting
52. Independent nucleation
Influence of temperature gradient in liquid on crystallization,
TE= eq freezing temp
TN= nucleation temp depending upon heterogeneous nuclei
T1-3= temperature gradients producing increasing undercooling and
associated changes in morphology planar-cellular-dendritic-independently
nucleated
53. The Structure of Casting
Three major influences
•Alloy constitution
• mode of crystallization, single/ multiphase eutectic or both
• Level of constitutional undercooling
•Thermal conditions
• Temperature distribution, rate of cooling are determined
based on initial temperature and thermal properties of
metal and mold
•Inherent nucleation and growth conditions in the liquid
• Homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation stimulation
in liquid metal
54. Interaction of temperature and compositional gradients in determining structure
(a)Influence of a temperature gradient (T)
(b)Influence of a liquidus temperature profile (TE) (i) conditions favoring plane front
solidification, (ii) conditions producing undercooling
55. Influence of undercooling on interface morphology and mode of growth.
(a)Planar interface
(b)Cellular interface
(c)Dendritic growth
(d)Independent nucleation
57. Influence of solute concentration,
temperature gradient and freezing rate
on solidification phenomena in
unidirectional cooling
(a)Formation of cellular interface
(b)Cellular-dendritic transition in Sn-Pb
alloys
(c)Onset of equiaxed growth in Al-Mg
alloys
58. Thermal explanation of mixed structures in castings (a)
columnar growth stage (b) central equiaxed region
59.
60. • Characteristic grain
structure in a
casting of a pure
metal, showing
randomly oriented
grains of small size
near the mold wall,
and large columnar
grains oriented
toward the center
of the casting
Solidification of Pure Metals
62. Three Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
•FIGURE 5.8
Schematic
illustration of three
cast structures of
metals solidified in a
square mold:
•(a) pure metals;
•(b) solid-solution
alloys; and
•(c) the structure
obtained by
heterogeneous
nucleation of grains,
using nucleating
agents.
63. Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept., SJSU 63
Solidification Time
Solidification time = C(volume/surface area)2
Where C is a constant that depends on mold material and
thickness, metal characteristics and temperature.
64. The mold constant C depends on the properties of the metal, such as
Density, Heat Capacity, Heat of Fusion and superheat, and the mold,
such as initial temperature, density, Thermal conductivity, heat capacity
and wall thickness.
The metric units of the mold constant C are min/ cm2
According to Askeland, the constant n is usually 2, however Degarmo claims
it is between 1.5 and 2. The mold constant of Chvorinov's rule, C, can be
calculated using the following formula:
Where
Tm
= melting or freezing temperature of the liquid (in Kelvin)
To
= initial temperature of the mold (in Kelvin)
ΔTs
= Tpour
− Tm
= superheat (in Kelvin)
L = latent heat of fusion (in [J.Kg-1
])
k = thermal conductivity of the mold (in [W.m-1
.K-1
)])
ρ = density of the mold (in [Kg.m-3
])
c = specific heat of the mold (in [J.Kg-1
.k-1
])
ρm
= density of the metal (in [Kg.m-3
])
cm
= specific heat of the metal (in [J.Kg-1
.k-1
])
C
65. Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept., SJSU 65
Solidification Time
Sphere, cube and a cylinder with the same volume
66. • Cooling rate depends on casting material and configuration. It also
depends on volume and surface area of the casting.
• The pouring rate should be such that solidification does not start and
the cavity is completely filled without eroding mould surface and
undue turbulence.
• On the basis of experience following empirical relations are
developed for pouring time
K: Fluidity factor
W: Weight In kg
Tp: Poring time in sec
Pouring Rate
67. Mould Fcators in Metal Flow
• Fluidity is the property of metal alone
• The flow of metal under given pressure head is also
strongly influenced by the nature of mould
• Metal flow is arrested through solidification, mould condition
can effect flow duration directly (thermal properties) or
indirectly (velocity)
• Reduction in velocity-> increased time for heat loss/length
of passage wall -> final arrest in shorter distance
68. Thermal properties
D = (kcρ) ½
K = thermal conductivity
c= Specific heat
ρ = density
• Rate of cooling depends upon the heat diffusivity on mould material
• Rapid cooling result from the use of high heat diffusivity mould
materials, chills etc
• Cooling is accelerated by water in green sand moulds, this effect
retards metal flow in thin sections
Mould Surface Effect
• Roughness of mould surface (grain size dependent) slows down the flow
• Moud coatings are used to increase flow characteristics
• e.g. hexachloroethane in aluminum alloy casting
69. Air Pressure Effect
• Inadequate vents and channels for the escape of rapidly expanding
air/gases can result in loss of fluidity due to reduced flow as result of
back pressure
• Mould conditions affecting flow are inherent in the moulding
process and material
• Successful filling of mould depends primarily on the use of
suitable gating techniques
70. The path of molten metal during casting process comprises mainly four
parts:
1. Pouring of molten metal from ladle to the cup in the mould
2. Flow within the gating channels, from pouring basin to ingate
3. Jet of molten metal emerging from ingate and entering the mould cavity
4. Filling of mould cavity by liquid movements in the bulk as well as near
the surface.
71. Gating of Castings
• The rate and direction of metal flow must be such as to ensure complete
filling of the mould before freezing
• Flow should be smooth and uniform with minimum turbulence,
entrapment of air, metal oxidation and mould erosion
• It should promote ideal temperature distribution within the completely
filled mould cavity so that the pattern of subsequent cooling is
favourable to feeding
• The systems should have traps and filters for the separation of
inclusions
Gating system should be designed as per the
•Weight and shape of each casting
•Fluidity of metal
•Metal susceptibility to oxidation
• and ensure Minimum cost, molding time, fettling time, metal consumption
The main objective of a gating system is to lead clean molten metal
poured from ladle to the casting cavity, ensuring smooth, uniform
and complete filling.
76. Flow behavior in horizontal gating systems
(a) Central spure
(b) End sprue
77. Multiple finger ingate systems designed to induce uniform flow
(a)Pool in system
(b)Backswept runner
(c)Tapered runner
78. Horizontal gating systems
(a)Streamlined system with progressively
diminishing cross-sectional area of passages
(b)System using parallel runner with angled ingates
88. Shrinkage
• Most metals shrink during solidification & cooling
process
• Causes dimension changes and sometimes cracking
– Molten metal contracts as it cools prior to solidification
– Metal contracts during solidification process
– Metal contracts further as it cools to room temperature
89. Shrinkage
Metal Percent Contraction (-)
Expansion(+)
Aluminum
Zinc
Gold
Copper
Brass
Carbon Steel
Lead
Gray Cast Iron
-7.1%
-6.5%
-5.5%
-4.9%
-4.5%
-2.5-4%
-3.2%
+2.5%
105. Challenges with Casting
• Several defects can develop in castings
• Most can be avoided with proper design and
processing techniques
106. Challenges with Casting
• Metallic Projections - fins, flash, rough surface
– Too high pressure
– Improper mating mold pieces
• Cavities - pockets caused by shrinkage or gases
– Can be controlled by adding flux
• Discontinuities – includes cracks, cold/hot tearing,
and cold shunts
– Constrained cooling
– Molten metal too low temperature
107. Challenges with Casting
• Defective Surface – scars(marks), adhering sand
layers, oxide scale
– Design of gate may improve
• Incomplete Casting – premature solidification
– Insufficient volume of metal poured
• Incorrect Dimensions/Shape – improper shrinkage
allowance, warped( benting) casting, etc.
• Inclusions – form during melting, solidification,
and molding
– Usually a result of chemical reactions
– Reduce strength of casting
– Can/should be filtered out
108. Sand Casting
• Most prevalent form of casting
• 15 million tons of metal cast by this method
annually in the US
• Typical sand casting applications
– Machine bases
– Large turbine impellers
– Propellers
– Plumbing fixtures
– Agricultural and railroad equipment components
109. Sand Casting
• Utilizes gravity to feed molten metal into a non-
reuseable mold
• Sand contains binding materials
• Requires a reuseable mold pattern
• Produces a parting line on the work piece
• Requires drafts and fillets on pattern
• Produces rough textured(roughness) surfaces
• Sprues, risers, and runners must be removed
117. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
MOLDING SANDS
• Molding sand must be readily moldable and produce
defect-free castings.
• AFS – sets forth the standard condition of testing the sand
properties.
1. GREEN STRENGTH:
• Adequate strength and toughness for making and handling
the mold.
2. DRY STRENGTH:
• Dry sand must have strength to resist erosion and also the
metallostatic pressure of the molten metal or else the mold
may enlarge.
118. 3. HOT STRENGTH:
• Hot molten metal
• Metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal bearing
against the mold walls may cause mold
enlargement, or if the metal is still flowing,
erosion, cracks, or breakages may occur unless the
sand posses adequate hot strength.
4. PERMEABILITY:
• Steam and other gases
• The mold must be permeable, i.e. , porous to
permit the gases to escape.
119. 5. THERMAL STABILITY:
• Heat from the casting causes rapid expansion of
the sand surface at the mold-metal interface.
• The mold surface may crack, buckle(twisted), or
flake off (scab) unless the molding sand is
relatively stable dimensionally under rapid heating.
6. REFRACTORINESS:
• The absence of melting, softening, or adherence of
the sand to the casting makes for better casting
surface and easier cleaning of the casting.
• Ferrous alloys ---- sand with high refractoriness.
120. 7. FLOWABILITY:
• The sand should pack well/flow under load.
• Sands of low flowability may result in non-
uniform hardness.
• Soft molds --- enlargement of the casting or
roughness of the casting surfaces.
8. PRODUCE GOOD CASTING FINISH:
• Finer sands ----- a smoother casting surface.
121. 9. COLLAPSIBILITY:
• Heated sands -------- hard and rocklike.
• Difficult to remove from the casting
• May cause the contracting metal to tear or crack.
10. THE SAND SHOULD BE REUSABLE.
11. EASE OF SAND PREPARATION AND
CONTROL.
** Economic production of good casting.
122. SAND DEFINATIONS
Silica Sand: White, washed and dried, silica sand grains of
high purity, 99.8+ percent SiO2.
Bank Sand: Sand from glacial or sedimentary deposits
occurring in banks or pits usually containing less
than 5 % clay.
Lake Sand: A sub-angular sand, from lake areas.
System Sand: employed in a mechanical sand preparation
and handling system.
Heap Sand: Sand thought of as being heaped on the floor
when it is prepared for use.
Facing Sand: A specially prepared sand used next to the
pattern and backed up with heap or system sand.
123. Backing Sand: Molding sand used to back up facing sand
and not used next to the pattern.
Bonding Sand: Sand high in clay content used to add clay to
a molding sand.
Sharp Sand: A sand substantially free of bond. Lake sands
Sand Additive: Any material added to molding sands for a
special effect.
Loam: A mixture of sand, silt and clayey particles in such a
proportions as to exhibit about 50 % sand grains
and 50 % silt and clay.
127. Grain Shape is defined in terms of
• Angularity and
• Sphericity
Sand Grains Vary from
• Well Rounded to Rounded
• Sub rounded
• Sub Angular
• Angular
• Very Angular
With in each angularity band
grains may have
• High
• Medium
• Low Sphericity
Angularity is estimated through low power microscope
examination and comparison with published charts
The Best foundry sand
grains are
Rounded with medium to
high Sphericity giving rise
to Good Flowability and
Permeability with high
strength at low binder
additions
More Angular and low
sphericity sand require
higher binder additions
have lower packing density
and poor flowability
Grain Shape
137. Additives
To improve surface finish, dry strength, refractoriness,
and "cushioning(mechanical damping) properties of
the casting following: additives may be added upto
•Reducing Agents (5%) Coal Powder, Creosote,
Pitch, Fuel Oil
•Cushioning Material (3%) Wood Flour, Saw Dust
Powdered Husks(shell), Peat, And Straw
• Cereal Binders (2%) Starch, Dextrin, Molasses
Sulphite Lye(strong solution of sodium or potassium
hydroxide),
•2% Iron Oxide Powder
Disadvantage they greatly reduce permeability
138. Parting Compounds
Common Powders include
•Talc
•Graphite
•Dry Silica
Common Liquids include
•Mineral Oil
•Water-Based Silicon Solutions
139. Requirements of molding sand are:
(a) Refractoriness
(b) Cohesiveness
(c) Permeability
(d) Collapsibility
The performance of mould depends on
following factors:
(a) Permeability
(b) Green strength
(c) Dry strength
141. Patterns
• Variety of patterns are used in casting and the choice
depends on the configuration of casting and number
of casting required
– Single-piece pattern
– Split pattern
– Follow board pattern
– Cope and drag pattern
– Match plate pattern
– Loose-piece pattern
– Sweep pattern
– Skeleton pattern
144. TABLE 11.3
Ratinga
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Pattern Material Characteristics
148. 148
And more…
Figure 7.2.32
Omit outside
bosses and the
need for cores.
(Courtesy of
Meehanite Metal
Corp.)
Figure 7.2.35
Avoid using ribs
which meet at
acute angles.
(Courtesy of
Meehanite Metal
Corp.)
151. General design rules
• Casting soundness-feeder heads can be placed to offset liquid
shrinkage
• Fillet or round all sharp angles
• Bring the minimum number of adjoining sections together
• Design all sections as nearly uniform in thickness as possible
• Avoid abrupt section changes-eliminate sharp corners at
adjoining sections: not exceed a 2:1 ratio
• Design ribs for maximum effectiveness-increase stiffness and
reduce mass
• Avoid bosses & pads unless absolutely necessary
152. General design rules continued
• Use curved spokes-less likely to crack
• Use an odd number of spokes-more resilient to casting
stresses
• Consider wall thicknesses
– Gray-iron & aluminum: .16 in minimum
– Malleable iron & steel: .18 in minimum
– Bronze,brass,magnesium: .10 minimum
Parting lines: a line along which the pattern is divided for
molding or along which sections of the mold separate
(consider shape of casting, elimination of machining on
draft surfaces, methods of supporting cores, location of
gates & feeders)
Drill holes in castings: small holes are drilled and not
cored
155. Other Considerations
• Draft angle
– Facilitate the removal of the part from the mold
– Typically 1º-5º
• Shrinkage Allowance
– Added to the pattern size so the desired
tolerances can be maintained on the part
159. Vertical Flaskless Molding
Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern.
(b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
160. • A core is a preformed baked sand or green sand aggregate inserted in a
mold to shape the interior part of a casting which cannot be shaped by
the pattern.
• A core box is a wood or metal structure, the cavity of which has the
shape of the desired core which is made therein.
• A core box, like a pattern is made by the pattern maker.
• Cores run from extremely simple to extremely complicated.
• A core could be a simple round cylinder form needed to core a hole
through a hub of a wheel or it could be a very complicated core used to
core out the water cooling channels in a cast iron engine block along
with the inside of the cylinders.
• Dry sand cores are for the most part made of sharp, clay-free, dry silica
sand mixed with a binder and baked until cured; the binder cements the
sand together.
• When the metal is poured the core holds together long enough for the
metal to solidify, then the binder is finely cooked, from the heat of the
casting, until its bonding power is lost or burned out. If the core mix is
correct for the job, it can be readily removed from the castings interior by
simply pouring it out as burnt core sand. This characteristic of a core mix
is called its collapsibility.
Cores
161. • The size and pouring temperature of a casting determines how well and
how long the core will stay together.
• The gases generated within the core during pouring must be vented to
the outside of the mold preventing gas porosity and a defect known as a
core blow. Also, a core must have sufficient hot strength to be handled
and used properly.
• The hot strength refers to its strength while being heated by the casting
operation. Because of the shape and size of some cores they must be
further strengthened with rods and wires.
• A long span core for a length of cast iron pipe would require rodding to
prevent the core from sagging or bending upward when the mold is
poured because of the liquid metal exerting a strong pressure during
pouring.
162. BINDERS
•There are many types of binders to mix with core sand. A binder should be
selected on the basis of the characteristics that are most suitable for
particular use.
•Some binders require no baking becoming firm at room temperature such as
rubber cement, Portland cement and sodium silicate or water glass.
• In large foundry operations and in some small foundries, sodium silicate is a
popular binder as it can be hardened almost instantly by blowing carbon
dioxide gas through the mixture.
•The sodium silicate/CO2 process hardens through reaction. The silica gel
that is formed binds individual sand grains together.
•Oil binders require heating or baking before they develop sufficient strength
to withstand the molten metal.
• Sulfite binders also require heating. The most popular of the sulfite binders
is a product of the wood pulp industry.
• There are many liquid binders made from starches, cereals and sugars.
They are available under a countless number of trade names.
163. A good binder will have the following properties;
•Strength
•Collapse rapidly when metal starts to shrink.
•Will not distort core during baking.
•Maintain strength during storage time.
•Absorb a minimum of moisture when in the mould or in storage.
•Withstand normal handling.
•Disperse properly and evenly throughout the sand mix.
•Should produce a mixture that can be easily formed
MANUFACTURING OF CORE
•Core sand mixes can be mixed in a Muller or paddle type
mixer and in small amounts on the bench by hand.
•The core is made by ramming the sand into the core box
and placing the core on a core plate to bake.
166. Core Making: Cores are made of foundry sand with addition
of some resin for strength by means of core boxes
Core box, two core
halves ready for baking,
and the complete core
made by gluing the two
halves together
167. Balance Core
This is when the core is
supported on one end
only and the other
unsupported end
extends a good way into
the mold cavity.
CHAPLETS
• Chaplets consist of metallic supports or
spacers used in a mold to maintain cores,
which are not self-supporting, in their
correct position during the casting
process.
• They are not required when a pattern
has a core print or prints which will serve
the same purpose.
• The pattern is drilled, wherever a
chaplet is needed.
168. CORE BAKING AND CORE OVENS
•The cores are baked in order to set the binder.
•The usual temperature range for oil bonded cores is from 300 to 450 degrees
Fahrenheit. The time required varies with the bulk of the core.
•A large core might take several days to bake or a small core might bake out
in an hour or less.
•When an oil core is completely baked the outside is a rich dark brown not
black or burned. The core must be cured completely through with no soft
centres.
•Another factor which relates to the time and temperature required to properly
dry a core, is the type and amount of binder used. Oil binders require hotter
and quicker baking.
•The core oven, which is usually a gas fired oven with temperature controls, is
equipped with shelves on which to set the core plates and cores for baking.
•The core oven can consist of a square or rectangular brick oven with doors.
The bottom of the oven is floor level. The ores are placed on racks which,
when full, are rolled into the oven, the oven closed and the cores baked.
169.
170. Types of Permanent Pattern Casting
TechniquesGreen Sand Molds The most common type consisting of
forming the mold from damp molding sand (silica, clay and
moisture)
Skin-dried Molds It is done in two ways; (1) The sand around
the pattern to a depth of about 1/2 in(10 mm) is mixed with a
binder so that when it is dried it will leave a hard surface on
the mold. (2) Entire mold is made from green sand, but a
spray or wash, which hardens when heat is applied, is used.
(3) The surface is then dried upto a depth of 12-25 mm by
means of hot air, infrared lamp etc.
Dry Sand Molds These molds are made entirely from fairly
coarse molding sand mixed with binders (linseed oil or
gelatinized starch). They baked before being used. A dry sand
mold holds its shape when poured and is free from gas
troubles due to moisture.
171. Floor and Pit Mold
Loam sand Mold
High Pressure Mold
172. Resin Bond : Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder
Steps in shell molding: (1) a match plate or cope and drag metal‑ ‑ ‑ ‑
pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with
thermosetting resin.
173. Steps in shell molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and‑
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture
to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell; (3) box
is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;
174. Steps in shell molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for‑
several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped
from the pattern;
175. Steps in shell molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are‑
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.
From www.janfa.com
176. Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of shell molding:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
177. Resin Bond
Cold Box
– synthetic liquid resin mixed with sand.
– Cold-setting process- bonding of mold takes
place without heat
Hot Box
organic and inorganic binders added.
greater dimensional accuracy.
greater cost.
178. Schematic of the V-process or vacuum molding. A) A vacuum is pulled on a pattern, drawing a heated
shrink-wrap plastic sheet tightly against it. b) A vacuum flask is placed over the pattern and filled with
dry unbonded sand, a pouring basin and sprue are formed; the remaining sand is leveled; a second
heated plastic sheet is placed on top; and a mold vacuum is drawn to compact the sand and hold the
shape. c) With the mold vacuum being maintained, the pattern vacuum is then broken and the pattern
is withdrawn. The cope and drag segments are assembled, and the molten metal is poured.
V Process- No Bond
179. Advantages and Disadvantages of the V-Process
• Advantages
– Absence of moisture-related defects
– Binder cost is eliminated
– Sand is completely reusable
– Finer sands can be used
– Better surface finish
– No fumes generated during the pouring operation
– Exceptional shakeout characteristics
• Disadvantages
– Relatively slow process
– Used primarily for production of prototypes
– Low to medium volume parts
– More than 10 but less than 50,000
181. Engr 241 181
Plaster–mold casting(cont.)
• Mold dried in oven
• Poured in vacuum or under pressure due to
low permeability
• Low permeability (gas cannot escape)
182. Plaster-Mold Casting
Antioch Process
• Plaster of paris with talc and silica flour.
• Mixed with water
• Poured over pattern
• Plaster sets – pattern removed
Engr 241 182
186. Unicast and Shaw Process
a mixture of refractory aggregate, hydrolyzed ethyl
silicate, alcohol, and a gelling agent to create a mold. The
slurry hardens almost immediately to a rubbery state . The
flask and pattern is then removed. Then a torch is used to
ignite the mold, which causes most of the volatiles to burn-off
and the formation of ceramic microcrazes (microscopic
cracks). These cracks are important, because they allow
gases to escape while preventing the metal from flowing
through; they also ease thermal expansion and contraction
during solidification and shrinkage. After the burn-off, the
mold is baked at 1,800 °F (980 °C) to remove any remaining
volatiles. Prior to pouring metal, the mold is pre-warmed to
control shrinkage
187.
188. A typical ceramic mold (Shaw process) for casting steel dies used in hot forging. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
190. Expanded Polystyrene Process
Foam pattern is placed in mold box,
and sand is compacted around the
pattern;
Molten metal is poured into the portion of
the pattern that forms the pouring cup
and sprue. As the metal enters the mold,
the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid, thus the resulting
mold cavity is filled.
213. Process Capabilities and Machine SelectionProcess Capabilities and Machine Selection
– Dies are rated according to their clamping force that is needed
– Factors involved in selection of die cast machines are
• Die size
• Piston stroke
• Shot pressure
• Cost
– Die-casting dies
• Single cavity
• Multiple-cavity
• Combination-cavity
• Unit dies
– Ratio of Die weight to part weight is 1000 to 1
– Surface cracking is a problem with dies due to the hot metal that is
poured in to them
– Has ability to produce strong high- quality parts with complex shapes
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface details
214. Various types of cavities in a die casting die.Various types of cavities in a die casting die.
a) Single – cavity die
b) Multiple – cavity die
c) Combination die
d) Unit die
215. Die CastingDie Casting
• Molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging
from .7MPa – 700MPa
• Parts made from here range from:
– Hand tools
– Toys
– Appliance components
• There are two basic types of die casting machines
– Hot-chamber - involves the use of a piston to push molten
metal in to the die cavity
– Cold-chamber – molten metal is poured in to the injection
chamber & the shot chamber is not heated
217. Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Cycle in hot chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger‑
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces
metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling
and solidification.
218. Die Casting in Hot-Chamber Process
• FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of steps in die casting of a part in the hot-chamber
process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
219. Hot chamber Die-casting processHot chamber Die-casting process
• 1. The die is closed and the
piston rises, opening the
port and allowing molten
metal to fill the cylinder.
• 2. The plunger moves
down and seals the port
pushing the molten metal
through the gooseneck and
nozzle into the die cavity,
where it is held under
pressure until it solidifies.
220. • 3. The die opens and the
cores, if any, retract. The
casting remains in only one
die, the ejector side. The
plunger returns, allowing
residual molten metal to flow
back through the nozzle and
gooseneck.
• 4. Ejector pins push the
casting out of the ejector die.
As the plunger uncovers the
filling hole, molten metal flows
through the inlet to refill the
gooseneck, as in step (1).
224. Cold-Die casting processCold-Die casting process
• 1. The die is closed and the
molten metal is ladled into the
cold-chamber shot sleeve.
• 2. The plunger pushes the molten
metal into the die cavity where it
is held under pressure until
solidification.
225. • 3. The die opens and the plunger
advances, to ensure that the
casting remains in the ejector die.
Cores, if any, retract.
• 4. Ejector pins push the casting
out of the ejector die and the
plunger returns to its original
position.
229. Pressure-Casting Process
• FIGURE 5.27 The pressure-casting process uses graphite molds for the
production of steel railroad wheels. Source: Griffin Wheel Division of
Amsted Industries Incorporated.
230. (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the productin of
steel railroad wheels. (b) Gravity pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note
that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
Pressure CastingPressure Casting
231. Slush CastingSlush Casting
• Molten metal is poured into the metal mold
• A desired thickness of the solidified skin is obtained
• The remaining metal is poured out
• The mold halves are then opened and the casting is removed
• Used a graphite or metal mold
• Molten metal is forced into the mold by gas pressure
• The pressure is maintained until the metal solidifies in the mold
• Used for high-quality castings
Pressure CastingPressure Casting
234. Centrifugal Casting Process
FIGURE 5.30 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process.
Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast by this
process.
237. Semicentrifugal Casting
Process
•FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. (b)
Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery
of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.
239. Vacuum CastingVacuum Casting1. Mixture of fine sand
and urethane is
molded over metal
dies a cured with
amine vapor
2. The mold is partially
immersed into molten
metal held in an
induction furnace
3. The metal is melted in
air or in a vacuum
4. The molten metal is
usually 55 C above
the liquidus
temperature – begins
to solidify within a
fraction of a second
5. Alternative to investment, shell-
mold, and green-sand casting
6. Relatively low cost
240.
241. Squeeze-Casting Process
• FIGURE 5.32 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process.
This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
244. Plaster Molds Plaster or plaster-bonded molds are used for casting
certain aluminum or copper base alloys. Dimensional accuracy and
excellent surface finish make this a useful process for making rubber
tire molds, match plates, etc.
A variation of this method of molding is the Antioch process, using
mixtures of 50 percent silica sand, 40 percent gypsum cement, 8 percent
talc, and small amounts of sodium silicate, portland cement, and
magnesium oxide. These dry ingredients are mixed with water and
poured over the pattern. After the mixture is poured, the mold is steamtreated
in an autoclave and then allowed to set in air before drying in an
oven. When the mold has cooled it is ready for pouring. Tolerances of
0.005 in (0.13 mm) on small castings and 0.015 in (0.38 mm)
on large castings are obtained by this process.
A problem presented by plaster molds lies in inadequate permeability
in the mold material consistent with the desired smooth mold cavity
surface. A closely related process, the Shaw process, provides a solution
245. In this process, a refractory aggregate is mixed with a gelling agent and then poured
over the pattern. Initial set of the mixture results in a rubbery consistency which allows it
to be stripped from the pattern but which is sufficiently strong to return to the shape it
had when on the pattern. The mold is then ignited to burn off the volatile content in the
set gel and baked at very high heat. This last step results in a hard, rigid mold containing
microscopic cracks. The permeability of the completed mold is enhanced by the
presence of the so-called microcrazes, while the mold retains the high-quality definition
of the mold surface.
Two facts are inherent in the nature of sand molds: First, there may be one or few
castings required of a given piece, yet even then an expensive wood pattern is required.
Second, the requirement of removal of the pattern from the mold may involve some very
intricate pattern construction. These conditions may be alleviated entirely by the use of
the full mold process, wherein a foamed polystyrene pattern is used. Indeed,
the foamed pattern may be made complete with a gating and runner system,
and it can incorporate the elimination of draft allowance. In actual practice, the pattern is
left in place in the mold and is instantly vaporized when hot metal is poured. The hot
metal which vaporized the foam fills the mold cavity to the shape occupied previously by
the foam pattern. This process is ideal for casting runs of one or a few pieces, but it
can be applied to production quantities by mass-producing the foam patterns. There is
extra expense for the equipment to make the destructible foam patterns, but often the
economics of the total casting process is quite favorable when compared with resorting
to a reusable pattern. There are particular instances when the extreme complexity of a
casting can make a hand-carved foam pattern financially attractive.
247. Die casting
- a type of permanent mold casting
- common uses: components for
rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing-, drying machines,
fridges, motors, toys, hand-tools, car wheels, …
HOT CHAMBER: (low mp e.g. Zn, Pb; non-alloying)
(i) die is closed, gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck into cavity
(iii) metal is held under pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, cores retracted; plunger returns
(v) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die
COLD CHAMBER: (high mp e.g. Cu, Al)
(i) die closed, molten metal is ladled into cylinder
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity
(iii) metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, plunger pushes solidified slug from the cylinder
(v) cores retracted
(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die