Different methods to perform Research

1. New Research Methodologies and
Techniques Orientation

2. 2
Table of Content
Introduction 3
Why Research Methodology 4-5
Research Methodology – Scope 6
Objective of Research 7-8
New Research Methods & Techniques 9-11
Type of Research 12-14
Research Process 15
Research Methods Versus Methodology 16
Importance of Research Methodology 17
The Internet as Fast Paced Medium for Research 18
Research Approaches 19-29
Research Methodology – Hypothesis 30-35

3. Introduction
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic.
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast areas of research in other disciplines
such as languages, literature, history and sociology. Whatever might be the subject, research has to be an active,
diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours and
theories. Applying the outcome of research for the refinement of knowledge in other subjects, or in enhancing the
quality of human life also becomes a kind of research and development. Research is done with the help of study,
experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning.
… a process of enquiry and
investigation; it is systematic,
methodical and ethical; research
can help solve practical problems
and increase knowledge.
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4. Why Research Methodology
“Methodology” implies more than simply the methods analyst intend to use to collect data. It is often
necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods. For instance, if
researcher intend to highlight a specific feature of a sociological theory or test an algorithm for some aspect of
information retrieval, or test the validity of a particular system, they have to show that they understand the
underlying concepts of the methodology.
The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions.
The methodology may include publication research, interviews, surveys and other research techniques, and could
include both present and historical information.
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5. Rationale
Behind
the Study
Problem
Definition
Research
Objectives
Sampling
Plan
Research
Design
Research
Hypothesis
Instrument
Development
& Pilot
Testing
Data
Collection
& Analysis
Tools
Limitation
of the
Study
Why Research Methodology Continues…
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6. Research Methodology - Scope
i. Marketing Research: The process of gathering, analysing and interpreting information about a market, about a
product or service to be offered for sale in that market, and about the past, present and potential customers for
the product or services; research into the characteristics, spending habits, location and needs of your business’s
target market, the industry as a whole, and the particular competitors you face.
ii. For making government policy
iii. Operational Research: It is a scientific method of providing executive departments with an qualitative basis for
decisions regarding the operations under their control.
iv. Motivational Research: The application of the knowledge and technique of the social sciences, especially
psychology and sociology, to understand consumer attitudes and behaviour: used as a guide in advertising and
marketing.
v. Stimulation Research
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7. Objectives of Research
Objective
The prime objectives of research are:
• to discover new facts
• to verify and test important facts
• to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship
• to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and nonscientific problems
• to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and,
• to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.
Importance
Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events,
phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions are required for
tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions,
explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.
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8. Objectives of Research Continues….
Some important avenues of research are:
• A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a government
organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough
understanding and possible solution.
• Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them.
• It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.
• Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget.
• It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality of products.
• Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them.
• It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars, etc.
• Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and processes such as
superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.
• Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek solution to social
problems.
• Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
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9. New Research Methods & Techniques
A shift from data collection to data analysis: Today, actual customer behavior data is collected with ease, to
the point where analysis (or data mining) is much more challenging than obtaining the data. For example, Google
Analytics provides webmasters with tons of information about website visitors, including languages, pages visited,
screen resolutions, etc. Another example of “big data” data mining of is Amazon’s predictive recommendations.
A shift from “how do think you will behave?” (self-reporting) to “I know how you behaved” (observational
research): If you wanted to know what color cereal box would sell the most cereal, would you rather base you
decision on a survey or an actual experiment where colors are tested? Of course the experiment would be more
valuable. I want to know what customers actually do/want, not what they think they do/want. It’s not that
customers are trying to deceive researchers; it’s just that it’s difficult for users to predict their own future
actions. In any case, the world of market research is shifting from self-reporting techniques (surveys, focus
groups), to observational research methods whenever possible. The data is much more reliable.
Mobile market research methods: Smart phones and tablets are taking the world by storm. These devices are
becoming a preferred platform for many applications and markets, including market research. For example; Text
messaging surveys and voting (SMS Surveys), Smartphone designed surveys, Location Awareness , Mobile
Ethnography.
Biometric Market Research Techniques: New biometric research methods that measure a subject’s physical
response to stimuli (e.g., television commercial) provide valuable data that a subject might not be able or willing to
express verbally. Examples of biometric market research methods include heart rate monitoring, respiration
monitoring, skin and muscle activity, brain activity (using functional MRI) and eye tracking.
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10. New Research Methods & Techniques Continues …
Prediction Markets: A prediction market is like a mini stock market, where a group of people can buy and sell
“predictions” of various events. For example, one event might be “who will win the presidency?” Participants
could use their “currency” (fake or real) to buy or sell whoever they think will win. Early on, the price of one
candidate or the other might be $0.50, but as the election probability becomes more certain, a bid on one
candidate will grow closer to $1.00. At the end of an election, one candidate will be worth $1.00 and the other
$0.00. So what does this have to do with market research? Well, forward thinking companies are setting up these
prediction markets to tap into the wisdom of their employees. For example, a company could ask employees to
bid on a prediction market that has to do with competitors, industry trends, or the success of product concepts in
order to get an early read on those ideas.
Virtual Shopping: This involves the use for virtual store simulation to mimic a shopping experience for
participants–a good way to test things retail issues like product placement, store layout, packaging, etc. Once
again, the idea is to replicate a real situation for research subjects and observe behavior, as opposed to asking
them what they think they will do.
Live Audience Response: In conferences or lectures, presenters often have difficulty engaging with the
audience. One tool to remedy this problem is live audience response systems. These systems involve a
handhold remote control for audience members to respond to questions that appear on-screen (usually in a
PowerPoint slide).
Online Collaboration Tools: Tools like Skype (video calling), instant messaging, and shared whiteboarding allow
researchers to conduct a variety of “traditional” market research techniques using new technology. These
technologies are often much cheaper than physically gathering people. They also allow researchers to gather
people from broader geographies much easier.
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11. New Research Methods & Techniques Continues …
Social Media Market Research: Social media dominates the Web, so it is natural that market researchers are
looking for ways to leverage this technology. When people say “social media market research” they might mean
several different things:
• Research of social media — Simply researching the market of social media. For example, “X% of people use
Facebook and the average age of a Google+ user is X.”
• Research using social media data — There is a lot of data that can be gleaned from social media
sites. Looking at how many times a certain news story or product is shared across sites can tell researchers a lot
about what works and doesn’t work in journalism, product concepts, etc.
• Research using social media as part of the methodology or delivery mechanism — Many companies have
a large following on social media sites and can leverage that audience to ask questions. Often, if a customer is
willing to follow/friend/subscribe/whatever to a company on a social media site, they are a big fan of that company
and one of the best customers (probably a “promoter” in NPS, or net promoter score language)
QR Code Surveys: This overlaps with mobile phone market research. A poster could ask a simple survey
question and provide two QR codes, asking people to scan their choice. Such an approach makes it very easy for
someone to take a one-question survey without doing much more than pointing a phone. A webmaster would then
be able to gather the response data in aggregate. Other companies are using QR codes as a simple launch point
to a mobile survey. A good example of this is Tiipz.
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12. Types of Research
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
Analytical Research
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Applied Research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution, marketing research, evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Fundamental Research
Fundamental Research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed as fundamental research. Research concerning
knowledge of knowledge’s sake is termed fundamental research. Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are example of fundamental research.
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13. Types of Research continues…
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is about asking people for their opinions in a structured way so that you can
produce hard facts and statistics to guide you. To get reliable statistical results, it’s important to survey people in
fairly large numbers and to make sure they are a representative sample of your target market.
Quantitative research is ‘explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using
mathematical methods(in particular statistics)’.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is aimed at gaining a deep understanding of a specific organization or event,
rather a than surface description of a large sample of a population. It aims to provide an explicit rendering of the
structure, order, and broad patterns found among a group of participants. It is also called ethnomethodology or
field research. It generates data about human groups in social settings. Qualitative research does not introduce
treatments or manipulate variables, or impose the researcher's operational definitions of variables on the
participants. Rather, it lets the meaning emerge from the participants. It is more flexible in that it can adjust to the
setting. Concepts, data collection tools, and data collection methods can be adjusted as the research progresses.
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14. Types of Research continues…
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that relates to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical Research
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
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15. Research Process
Review the Literature
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16. Research Methods Versus Methodology
Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research. All the
methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially
planned, scientific and value neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes,
statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem.
Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and
observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by
experiments.
Research Methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how
research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also as defined as the study of methods
by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.
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17. Importance of Research Methodology
A researcher have to design a methodology for the problem chosen. Need to consider that even if the
method used for two problems are same however methodology can be different. It is important for the researcher to
know not only the research methods necessary for the research under taken but also the methodology. A researcher
not only needs to know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how to find a
solution of a physical system described by mathematical model, but also need to know:
• which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?,
• what is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?,
• what is the efficiency of the method?
Consideration of these aspects constitute a research methodology. More precisely, research methods
help us get a solution to a problem. On the other hand, research methodology is concerned with the explanation of
the following:
• Why is a particular research study undertaken?
• How did one formulate a research problem?
• What types of data were collected?
• What particular method has been used?
• Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods, materials,
scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen.
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18. The Internet as fast paced medium for Research
From past one decade or so the internet became an important source of knowledge and an
effective medium for research. For researchers, it is providing a range of new opportunities for collecting
information, networking, conducting research, collecting data and disseminating research results.
Electronic mail, e-journal, on-line submission of articles to journals, online focus groups,
online video conferencing and online questionary are some of the latest tools opened-up by the internet. We note
that thousands of books and other print publications have been made available online that would be extremely
difficult to locate otherwise, including out -of-print books, and classic literature and textbooks that would be much
less accessible in their printed form.
Some of the scientific research information available on the internet are:
• Details about various scientific and nonscientific topics.
• Titles and other relevant information of article published in
various journals, possibly, from past one decade or so (full
article will not be available).
• Preprint of papers submitted by researchers in certain websites.
• Information about scientific meetings to be held.
• Contact details for other researchers.
• Databases of reference material.
• Places where one can discuss topics and ask for help.
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19. Research Approaches
Research approach means the manner in which research is to be carried out. It should keep
the researcher on the right track and complete the planned work successfully. One should sharpen the thinking and
focus attention on the more important aspects of the study. The scientific thinking must be more formal, strict,
empirical and specific and more over goal oriented. Essentially, one must concentrate on an area of research and
aim to perform better than almost anyone else.
Defining the Research Problem
Very first & foremost approach before doing research is to do selection and to properly define a
“research problem”. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task, however it is a task that must be
tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that the
researcher should pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the
concerned individual, organisation or an authority should pose the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques
and procedures for throwing light in the question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But
such an approach generally does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is
usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
• Statement of the problem in a general way
• Understanding the nature of the problem
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the ideas through discussion
• Rephrasing the research problem
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Research Design
Research Design
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when,
how much, by what means concerning an enquiry or a research study constitute a research design. “A research
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure” In fact, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of:
• What is the study about?
• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• Where can the required data be found?
• What periods of time will the study include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection will be used?
• How will the data be analysed?
• In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:
a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study;
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21. Research Approaches Continues….
Research Design
b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made;
c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedure specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
Good Research Design:
A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and
so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed is considered a good design. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually
involves the consideration of the following factors:
i. The means of obtaining information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
iii. The objective of the problem to be studied;
iv. The nature of the problem to be studied; and
v. The availability of time and money for the research work.
Different Research Design:
Different research design can be conveniently described if we categorised them as:
I. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are also termed as
formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
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Research Design
ll. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive research studies are
those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association
with something else.
lll. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research studies
(generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of casual
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedure that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causally.
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Research Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
1. The principle of Replication;
2. The principle of Randomization; and
3. Principle of Local Control
There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection and
analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for a particular project. Researcher must
give due weight to various points such as the type of universe and its nature, the objective of his study, the resource
list or the sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy and the like when taking a decision in respect of the design
for his research project.
Research Plan
After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher must
arrange ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be described as
“Research Plan”. This is essential specially for new researcher because of the following:
i. It helps to organise ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for researcher to look for flaws & inadequacies, if
any.
ii. It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected as a preliminary step.
iii. It is a document that can be given to others for comments.
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Research plan must contain the following items:
a) Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly what it is that the researcher
expects to do.
b) The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one may know what information is to
be obtained for solving the problem.
c) Each major concept which researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms in context of the
research project.
d) The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An overall description of the approach to
be adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any, of the concerning method to be used are clearly mentioned
in the research plan.
e) The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted. For instance, if interview method is to be
used, an account of the nature of the contemplated interview procedure should be given.
f) A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made. If the study happens to be sample based, the
research plan should state the sampling plan i.e. how the sample is to be identified.
g) The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data. Statistical and other methods to be
used must be indicated in the plan. Such methods should not be left until the data have been collected.
h) Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the research project should also be
prepared and laid down in the plan itself.
Research Plan
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Sampling Design
Sampling Design
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as
well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e. the size of the sample.
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population’. A complete enumeration of all
items in the population is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an enquiry, when all items
are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true.
Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observation
increases.
Steps in Sample Design
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
i. Type of Universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects,
technically called the universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite.
ii. Sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat etc., or
it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc.,or it may be individual.
iii. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all
items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
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Sampling Design
iv. Size of Sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This
is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It
should be optimum.
v. Parameters of Interest: In determining the sampling design, one must consider the question of the specific
population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristics in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the
other measure concerning the population.
vi. Budgetary Constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions
relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
vii. Sampling Procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample to use i.e. researcher has to decide
the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
Type of Sample Design:
Sample design are based on two factors viz, the
representation basis and the element selection
technique. On the representation basis, the sample
may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling is based
on the concept of random selection, whereas
Non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
On element selection basis, the sample may be
either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample
element is drawn individually from the population at
large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered
under the term ‘restricted sampling’.
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Measurement & Scaling Techniques
Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, specially so when it concerns qualitative or
abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations,
the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned.
Technically speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects
of a range according to some rule of correspondence. In measuring, we device some form of scale in the range
(in terms of set theory, range may refer to some set) and then transform or map the properties of objects from
the domain (in terms of set theory, domain may refer to some other set) onto this scale.
Measurement Scales
Scales of measurement can be consider in terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely
used classification of measurement scales are :
Nominal Scale
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them. The
usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them. Such
numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale for their order is of no consequence; the
numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value.
There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales, chi-square test is the most common test
of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient
can be worked out.
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Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship
and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to
categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data.
Ordinal Scale
The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The ordinal scale
places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule.
Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena.
Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real difference between adjacent ranks may not be equal.
All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but more precise
comparisons cannot be made.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality
statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less. A percentile or quartile
measure is used for measuring dispersion. Correlation are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures
of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
Interval Scale
In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established
as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on
which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them
what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack
of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristics.
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Interval scale provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale also
incorporates the concept of equality of interval. As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with
interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard deviation is the most
widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate and the generally
used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test ‘F’ test.
Ratio Scale
Ratio scale have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise
as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of
an absolute zero of time. Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical
dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable
with ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out with
ratio scales values.
Thus, proceedings from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most
precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the researcher
should use the scale that provides the most precise description. Researchers in physical sciences have the
advantage to describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioral sciences are generally limited to describe
variables in interval scale form, a less precise type of measurement.
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30. Research Methodology - Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected relationship between two or more
variables under study. A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem & objectives into a clear explanation
or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the research study. A clearly stated hypothesis includes the
variables to be manipulated or measured, identifies the population to be examined, & indicates the proposed
outcome for the study.
Importance of Hypothesis in Research
Hypotheses enables the researcher to objectively investigate new areas of discovery. Thus , it
provides a powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge. Hypotheses provides objectivity to the research
activity. It also provides directions to conduct research such as defining the sources & relevance of data.
Hypotheses provides clear & specific goals to the researchers. These clear & specific goals provide the
investigator with a basis for selecting sample &research procedures to meet these goals.
Hypotheses provides link between theories & actual practical research. It provides a bridge between
theory & reality. A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most appropriate. As it is a tentative
statement of anticipated results, it guides the researcher towards the direction in which the research should
proceed. It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as the researcher forms the hypothesis by anticipating
the outcome.
It also determines the most appropriate research designs & techniques of data analysis. Hypotheses
provides understanding to the researchers about what expect from the results of the research study. It serves as
framework for drawing conclusions of a research study. Without hypotheses, research would be like aimless
wandering.
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31. Research Methodology – Hypothesis Continues….
Sources of Hypothesis
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32. Research Methodology – Hypothesis Continues….
Theoretical or conceptual frameworks
The most important sources of hypotheses are theoretical or conceptual frameworks developed for the
study. Through a deductive approach these hypotheses are drawn from theoretical or conceptual frameworks
for testing them. For example, Roy’s adaptation Model is used in are search study, where a hypothesis can be
drawn from a concept of the theoretical mode that ‘patient’s adaptation to a chronic illness depends on
availability of social support for them.
Previous research
Findings of the previous studies may be used for framing the hypotheses for another study. For
example, in a small sample descriptive study, are searcher found that a number of patients admitted with
coronary artery disease had increased body mass index. In another research study, a researcher may use this
finding to formulate a hypothesis as ‘Obese patients have increased risk for development of coronary artery
disease’.
Real-life experiences
Real-life experiences also contribute in the formulation of hypotheses for research studies. For
example, Newton had a life-changing experience of the falling of an apple & formulated a hypothesis that earth
attracts all the mass towards its centre, through several researchers were conducted before generating a law of
central gravity.
Academic literature
Academic literature is based on formal theories, empirical evidences, experiences, observation,
&conceptualizations of academicians. These literatures may serve as good sources for formulating hypotheses
for research studies.
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Types of Hypothesis
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34. Research Methodology – Hypothesis Continues….
Associative & causal hypothesis
Associative hypothesis : It reflects a relationship between variables that occurs or exists in natural
settings without manipulation. This hypothesis is used in correlational research studies. Examples of associative
hypothesis - Communication skills of healthcare providers & cost of care related to the satisfaction of patients.
Causal hypothesis : It predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more dependent &
independent variables in experimental or interventional setting, where independent variable is manipulated by
research to examine the effect on the dependent variable. The causal hypothesis reflects the measurement of
dependent variable to examine the effect of dependent variable, which is manipulated by the researcher(s). For
examples, prevalence of pin site infection is lower in patients who receive pin site care with hydrogen proxidide
as compared to patients who receive the pin site care with Betadine solution.
Simple & complex hypothesis
Simple hypothesis : It is a statement which reflects the relationship between two variables. For
example, ‘the lower the level of hemoglobin, the higher is the risk of infection among postpartum women’.
Complex hypothesis : It is a statement which reflects the relationship between more than two
variables. For example, ‘satisfaction is higher among patients who are older & dwelling in rural area than those
who are younger & dwelling in urban area’.
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Directional & Non-Directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis: It specifies not only the existence, but also the expected direction of the
relationship between variables. Directional hypothesis states the nature of the relationship between two or more
variables such as positive, negative, or no relationship. To express the direction of relationship between
variables, the directional terms are used to state the hypothesis such as positive, negative, less, more,
increased, decreased, greater, higher, lower, etc. For examples, ‘there is a positive relationship between years
of nursing experience & job satisfaction among nurses.
Non-Directional Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between two or more variables, but is does
not specify the anticipated direction & nature of relationship such as positive or negative. It indicates the
existence of relationship between the variables. For example, ‘there is relationship between years of nursing
experience & job satisfaction among nurses.
Null & research hypothesis:
Null hypothesis (H0): It is also known as statistical hypothesis & is used for statistical testing &
interpretation of statistical outcomes. It states the existence of no relationship between the independent &
dependent variables. For example, ‘there is no relationship between smoking &the incidence of coronary artery
disease’.
Research hypothesis (H1): It states the existence of relationship between two or more variables. For
examples, ‘there is relationship between smoking &incidence of lung cancer.
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