CHAPTER 3
GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND
INVESTIGATIONS
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CHAPTER 3
GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND
INVESTIGATIONS
In this Chapter you will explore three key topics:
• Topographical map reading skills
• Geographical data and techniques
• Geographical investigations
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Your tourist friend is lost. He is currently at City Hall MRT Station, and he needs to get to Esplanade Theatre.
He gives you a call and ask for directions. Both you and your tourist friend have a copy of this map. How would
you guide him to his destination?
Reading topographical maps

• Developing topographical map reading skills
allows you to:
- navigate to places
- be conscious of the environment
- understand how the environment is being
presented and (re)presented.
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Reading topographical maps

Reading grid references
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• They are used to identify
locations.
• Always read the eastings (x-
axis, vertical lines) then the
northings (y-axis, horizontal
lines)
• They can be:
- 4 digit grid references
(xxyy): identify an area OR
- 6 digit grid references
(xxx1yyy1): identify a point
x1 andy1 are derived by sub-
dividing the northings and
eastings into 10 segments
Area: 0736
Point: 088376

Reading directions: Compass directions
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• They are used to describe
the location of one
geographic feature from
another.
• Note that 4, 8 and 16
cardinal points can be used
to provide a more precise
location.
• When identifying direction,
take note of the word
‘from’ which signifies the
point you are taking
direction from.
N
E
S
W
NE
SESW
NW
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSESSW
WSW
WNW
NNW

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• Compass bearings provide
even more precise
locations than compass
directions.
Follow these steps when measuring compass
bearing:
1.Draw a straight line to join the two objects.
2.Draw the north arrow on the object you are
measuring ‘from’.
3.Place the 0° of the protractor on the right side
of the north arrow. Read clockwise to obtain the
grid bearing.
4.If the grid bearing is more than 180°, place the
0° of the protractor on the left side of the north
arrow. Add 180° to the bearing measured by the
protractor.
Reading directions: Compass bearings

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Interpreting scales
Type of scale Desription
Representative
fraction
• Written as a fraction (1/2,500) or Ratio (1:2,500)
• No unit of measurement (can be used for any units
of measurement)
Linear scale • A visual representation using a straight line that is
divided into equal parts.
• Used to represent actual distance on the map (e.g
2 cm represents 1 km)
Statement scale • A scale expressed in words (e.g 1 cm represents
1 km)

Measuring distances
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Straight-line distance
1. Connect two points.
2. Use a strip of paper to mark
out the distance between the
points.
3. Place the strip of paper on
the line scale.
4. Alternatively, use a calculator
to convert the map distance
into actual distance (i.e 1cm:
1km therefore 2.5cm=2.5
km)

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Curved distances
1. Divide the curved distance
into various straight line
segments.
2. Mark each location on the
strip of paper until the whole
length of the curved route is
marked.
3. Place the strip of paper
against the scale to convert
into the actual distance.
4. Alternatively, use string to
trace the curved distance,
and then convert into actual
distance using the scale.
Measuring distances

b. Describing relief and identifying
features in topographical maps
• Describing the nature of relief
• Identifying physical features and landforms
• Calculating gradient
• Interpreting map evidence
• Interpreting map symbols
• Interpreting human activities
• Describing patterns and locations of vegetation, land
use, and transport and communication
• Explaining the relationship between relief and land use
or transport and communication
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Describing the nature of relief
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Compare the two marked areas X and Y. What
differences do you notice in these maps?
X
Y

Relief refers to the change in the height of a land
surface, and is about height, shape, steepness,
slope and form.
Relief can be deduced from the arrangement of
contour lines and their contour intervals.
Contours are continuous lines joining points of the
same height. As each contour is a line of equal
height, contours never cross.
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Describing the nature of relief

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Describing the nature of relief

Match
the contour
patterns on
the left with
the landforms
on the right.

Identifying physical features and
landforms
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A B
C D

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E F
G H

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Description of landform Ans: Name of landform
• A highland more than 600 metres above sea level.
• Have steep slopes indicated by closely spaced contour
lines.
• A depression between two highlands.
• Represented by v-shaped contour lines pointing towards
higher ground.
• May have a river running through it
• Low-lying land found near a river.
• Generally flat and can be identified by the lack of
contour lines or widely spaced contours.
• A highland with steep slopes and a flat summit.
• Steep slopes are indicated by closely spaced contour
lines
• A flat summit is shown by the absence of contour lines at
the summit.
• Steep and near-vertical rock face.
• It is indicated by closely spaced contour lines.

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Description of landform Ans: Name of landform
• A highland more than 600 metres above sea level.
• Have steep slopes indicated by closely spaced contour
lines.
A Mountain
• Steep and near-vertical rock face.
• It is indicated by closely spaced contour lines.
D Cliff
• A depression between two highlands.
• represented by v-shaped contour lines pointing towards
higher ground.
• may have a river running through it
B (River) Valley
• A low-lying land found near a river.
• Generally flat and can be identified by the lack of
contour lines or widely spaced contours.
H Floodplain
• A highland with steep slopes and a flat summit.
• Steep slopes are indicated by closely spaced contour
lines
• A flat summit is shown by the absence of contour lines at
the summit.
C Plateau

Calculating gradient
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Gradient indicates the steepness of a slope. It
is measured by dividing the height of the land
with a given horizontal distance. Gradient is
expressed as a fraction or ratio. It is calculated
using the formula:
Difference in height between two points
Horizontal distance between two points
Follow these steps:
1)Difference in height between two points:
maximum height minus minimum height (using
the contour values)
2)Horizontal distance: measure the distance
between the two points and convert into
actual distance
3)Divide results from (1) with (2). NOTE: both
(1) and (2) must be in the same units i.e
metres

Interpreting map symbols
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Symbols represent the actual
features on the map. They are
found in the key.
They can be used to represent
physical features and human
activities. Some of the
examples are seen on the left.

Interpreting human activities
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Map symbols
help interpret
the types of
human activities
present in an
area. Human
activities may be
classified in
broad
categories:
Industries
Services and facilities
Agriculture

Interpreting human activities
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Transport and communication
Settlement pattern

Describing patterns and location of
vegetation, land use, and transport
and communication
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Explaining the relationship between relief and land
use or transport and communication

Maps and symbols
• Base maps
• Atlas
• Topographical maps
• Road maps
• Sketch maps
• Choropleth maps
• Isoline maps
• Dot maps
• Maps with proportionate symbols
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A map is a representation of the earth’s surface
or a part of the earth’s surface. Different maps
serve different purposes.
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Maps and symbols

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No. Types of
Map
Uses
1 Base maps Focus on basic information or highlight important information by providing an
outline of the area.
2 Atlas Provide details of natural and human features/occurrences of places.
3 Topographical
maps
Show physical and human features through the use of lines, symbols, colours
and abbreviations.
4 Road maps Road maps show the location of roads, buildings, railway tracks and airports,
and used as navigation tool.
5 Sketch maps Sketch maps are simplified illustrations of an area, drawn to show the basic
positions of an area’s main features.
6 Choropleth
maps
Show the geographical distribution and trends using colours or shadings to
group different data values
7 Isoline maps Isoline maps are maps with isolines, or continuous lines joining points of equal
value
8 Dot maps Dot maps show the distribution of data using dots. The dots have a fixed size or
value and are drawn on a base map.
9 Maps with
proportionate
symbols
Symbols drawn are proportional to the values of the data being mapped. For
example, bigger symbols are accorded to larger values.

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No. Scenario
• Kim and family needs directions to drive from Singapore to Melaka, Malaysia
over the weekend.
• A soldier is lost in the jungle, and he needs to find the nearest water source as
soon as possible.
• A tourist who wants an overview of the key geographical features in Spain.
• A geographer wants to know where all the less developed countries and
developed countries are located in the world.
• A researcher needs a basic map showing just the continents in the world so
that he can plot important information onto the map.
• A doctor needs to know which countries in the world have high infant death
rate.
• A pilot is flying across the Atlantic ocean, and needs to know the areas with the
same level of pressure so that he can navigate around safely.
• A student is conducting a field study trip, he needs to make observations and
record down the coastal environment he is studying.
• A geologist who wants to show the distribution of volcanoes in the world.

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No. Scenario
4 • Kim and family needs directions to drive from Singapore to Melaka, Malaysia
over the weekend.
3 • A soldier is lost in the jungle, and he needs to find the nearest water source as
soon as possible.
2 • A tourist who wants an overview of the key geographical features in Spain.
6 • A geographer wants to know where all the less developed countries and
developed countries are located in the world.
1 • A researcher needs a basic map showing just the continents in the world so
that he can plot important information onto the map.
9 • A doctor needs to know which countries in the world have high infant death
rate.
7 • A pilot is flying across the Atlantic ocean, and needs to know the areas with the
same level of pressure so that he can navigate around safely.
5 • A student is conducting a field study trip, he needs to make observations and
record down the coastal environment he is studying.
8 • A geologist who wants to show the distribution of volcanoes in the world.

Photographs and satellite images are primary
data which provide vital information about the
physical features and human activities at a
particular place and time.
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Photographs and satellite images

Different types of photographs and satellite images
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Landscape photographs
Aerial photographs
• Taken from a ground level
perspective and give a horizontal
view of an area
• Show the landscape in great detail,
allowing features and patterns to
be observed
• More details in the background
can be seen due to the height in
which photograph is taken.
• Size will not be distorted, and
useful for map making.
• Taken from space, allows large
area to be captured.
• Can show the development of
place over time.
Satellite images

Interpreting photographs
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1. What HUMAN features
(Transport and communication
networks, e.g. roads, railways,
satellite stations) are shown in
the photograph?
2. What PHYSICAL features (relief,
coast, vegetation) are shown in
the photograph?
3. Why are these features present?
4. What effects do these features
have on the physical and human
environments?

A graph is a diagram used to represent data
which shows the relationship between two or
more variables. A variable is something that is
measured and which helps us understand data
more easily.
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Graphs

• Line graphs
• Bar graphs
• Histograms
• Pie charts
• Scattergraphs
• Climographs
• Triangular graphs (For GCE O-Level only)
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Graphs

Simple line graphs
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1. Decide on your
independent (x-axis)
and dependant
variable (y- axis)
2. Plot the value of
both variables on the
graph paper.
3. Deduce the
relationship between
the two variables i.e
as air temperature
increases, the air can
hold higher amounts
of water vapour.
Air temperature:
independent
variable
Water vapour:
dependent
variable

Comparative line graphs
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Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound line graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

Bar graphs
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1. Decide on your independent (x-
axis) and dependant variable (y-
axis).
2. Plot the value of both variables
on the graph paper.
3. Compare the values among the
different independent variables.
i.e Indonesia has highest
fatalities related to tectonic
activities among the other 3
countries.

Comparative bar graphs
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Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound bar graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

Histogram
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1. Histograms show
distribution or
frequency of data.
The x-axis shows the
range of values.
2. The values do not
overlap. The y-axis
shows the frequency.
3. Different from bar
graphs because x-axis
states size/classes
and not categories.

Pie charts
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1. Pie charts are circular
graphs divided into
segments.
2. Each segment of a pie
chart represents the
portion a variable takes
up.
3. Each data set has to be
converted into a
percentage of the data
set.

Scattergraphs
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1. Plot data using ‘X’s.
2. Draw a straight line of best fit. This will broadly represent
the general pattern formed by the two points.
3. Take note of any anomalies.

Climographs
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1. A climograph shows how mean
monthly temperature and total
monthly precipitation vary
throughout the year for a
particular place.
2. The temperature is shown using
a line graph while the
precipitation is shown using a
bar graph.

Describing climographs
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When describing climograph, always
state the:
1.The months where the minimum and
maximum temperatures are
experienced.
2.The average temperature range (using
key terms in (a) and (b))
3.The months where it minimum and
maximum rainfall are experienced.
4.The total amount of rainfall
experienced in the place (using key
terms found in (c))

Triangular graphs
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Triangular graphs are equilateral triangles showing
the relationship between three data sets where the
variables add up to 100.
When reading triangular graphs:
1.Determine the point you are reading the value of.
2.Look at the base of the triangle and determine
the direction of 0 to 100. (is it left to right? or right
to left? In this case, it is left to right)
3.Draw a line from the designated point in the
direction determined in 2. (in this case, towards
the left) and take the first reading.
4.Insert the two other lines as shown in the figure.
5.Check and ensure all three readings add up to
100.

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Triangular graphs Cont.
0 100
0
100
100
0 0
100
100
0
100 0
A A
B
C
B
C

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Other ways of presenting data

Statistical calculation
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Statistical calculations aid analysis by providing more precise
calculations. Common statistical calculations are percentages,
ratios, mean, median and mode.

The phases in fieldwork
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• Gateway 3: Geographical investigations
a. Pre-fieldwork
b. During fieldwork
c. Post-fieldwork
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CHAPTER 3
GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND INVESTIGATION

Suggesting a hypothesis or guiding
question
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Hypothesis Guiding Question
Expressed as a statement Expressed as a question
Consist of a prediction May consist of a problem
Explanation for something that
needs to be tested or proven
Highlights what needs to be known
about a topic
Can have more than two variables
“How long does a Secondary 4
student spend in the washroom?”
Does not need to have an
independent or dependent
variable
“The older the student, the longer
the time they spend in the
washroom.”

Collecting data
• Recording observations
• Taking measurements
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Recording observations
1. Annotated photographs
2. Recording sheets
3. Maps
4. Cloud cover
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Annotated photographs and
recording sheets
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• Photographs can be used to record
the features on the fieldwork site
for future reference.
• Annotations can be added to
photographs to help highlight
essential information.
• Data collection is more
organised when tables
are included in recording
sheets

Maps and cloud cover
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• Maps show the location of physical
features and human activities.
• Maps can also be annotated with
the locations of recorded data.
Further data analysis and
presentation can then be carried
out after fieldwork has been done.
• Cloud cover symbols indicate the
amount of solar radiation that
reaches the earth’s surface.

Taking measurements
• Wind speed and direction
• Air pressure
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Precipitation
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Wind speed and direction
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Anemometer
•Hold up the anemometer in an open
area where wind flows freely.
•Read the wind speed indicated.
Anemometer Wind vane
Wind rose
Wind vane
•Place the wind vane at where the
wind is blowing.
•The direction the wind vane points
to is the direction where the wind is
blowing from.
Wind rose
•The rectangles point in the direction
where wind is blowing from.
•The numbers indicate the days of
the month where the wind is
blowing.

Air pressure
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• Air pressure is measured in
millibars (mb) using a
barometer.
• A barometer has two needles.
Check that the moveable pointer
is arranged over the measuring
hand to mark the current
pressure.
• The pressure is falling if the
measuring hand moves to the
left, and rising if the measuring
hand moves to the right.

Temperature
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• Temperature is measured using
an analogue or digital
thermometer.
• Temperature is read on a
maximum and minimum
thermometer by observing the
lowest point of each metal index
(blue line). For example, in the
figure, the minimum
temperature is 20°C and the
maximum temperature is 25°C.
• The diurnal temperature range is
therefore 5°C.
A digital thermometer
A maximum and minimum thermometer

Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is measured using a sling
psychrometer, which consists of a wet bulb
thermometer and a dry bulb thermometer.
To calculate:
1.Dip the wick of the wet bulb in water and
swing the psychrometer for 1 min.
2.Record the reading. Repeat step 1 until
both readings are consistent.
3.Read the temperature off the dry bulb.
4.To obtain the depression of the wet bulb,
calculate the difference between the wet
bulb temperature and the dry bulb
temperatures.
5.Using the conversion table, obtain the
relative humidity by finding the value where
the wet bulb depression intersects with the
dry bulb temperature.

Precipitation
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The amount of precipitation is measured in
millimetres using a rain gauge. A simple rain
gauge can be made using a funnel and a jar or
tin. To determine the amount of precipitation:
1.Find an appropriate spot to place your rain
gauge and position the rain gauge in an open
area.
2.Place the rain gauge into the ground with
about 30 cm protruding above ground.
3.Record the time at which the rainfall events
start and end.
4.Pour the collected water in the rain gauge
into a measuring cylinder. Read and record
the water level.

Post-fieldwork
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