Kodo Millet PPT made by Ghanshyam bairwa college of Agriculture kumher bhara...
1 Research methdology (1).ppt
1. Research methodology course
for 4th year midwifery Students
By
Gizachew A(BSc, MPH/E )
W/Sodo university College of Medicine and Health
Sciences
School of Public Health
3. Learning Objectives
At the end of this session students will be able to:
Define health research
Describe the different types of research
Explain the process of research
List the criteria for selecting a research topic.
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4. What is Research?
Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new
facts, testing ideas, theories, behaviours etc
It is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data and dissemination of findings .
To answer a certain question
Solve a problem
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5. What is Research?...
• Research is the continual search for truth using the
scientific method (study, investigation, observation,
comparison and/or experimentation)
• Scientific method is
– a systematic body of procedures and techniques
– applied in carrying out investigation or
experimentation
– targeted at obtaining new knowledge.
6. What is Research?...
• Health research is the application of principles of
research on health to generate new knowledge that
help to identify and deal with health problems of
individuals or groups.
• It aims to develop tools to prevent and cure
illness and mitigate its effects and it attempts to
devise better approaches to health care for the
individual and community.
7. • Research methodology:
The practice of how we come to know
The methodological question i.e. how can
the researcher go about finding out
whatever s/he believes can be known.
Focuses on research process, tools and
procedures
8. Characteristics of research
There are basic characteristics that distinguish research from
other ways of knowing:
1)Research is public:
–Freely available information
–Freely communicated among researchers
–Allows verification to support or disprove
–Data are kept at least for 5 years
2) Research is objective/action oriented
–Explicit rules and procedures are constructed
–All researchers follow these rules
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9. Characteristics of research...
3) Research is empirical:
–is knowable and potentially measureable
It is based on experience or observation
4) Research is scientific and cumulative/
multidisciplinary
–No single research stands alone
–Emanates from previous studies
–Repeatable
5) Relate the present to the future:
–Developed theories used to predict behaviors
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10. Characteristics of health research…
6. Focus on priority problems
It demands a clear statement of the problem
7. Timely
8. Cost-effective
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11. Scope of health research
Assess risks/benefits of treatment or
procedures
Produce evidence-based guidelines
Prediction of best medical practices and
outcomes
Provision of evidence-based health-care
Changing medical knowledge and practices.
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12. Purpose of Health Research
Purpose: To generate knowledge essential to
effectively promote the health of the population.
• Without that knowledge, effective action is
impossible because it has no logical or empirical
basis.
To generate new knowledge & technology
To facilitate prioritizing, designing & evaluation of
interventions
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13. Purpose Research Cont…
Research must be:
•Purposeful: what do you want to be able to contribute?
•Targeted: Who are the audiences?
•Credible: consider sources of information, method of data
collection, personnel involved…
•Timely: Is the information needed?
Research is done to find solutions to health problems.
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14. types of research
Questions for Discussion
1)What are the criteria used to classify research
into different types?
2) List the type of research under each category
(criteria).
15. Types of research
Based on objectives
• Basic research - necessary to generate new knowledge &
technologies to deal with major unresolved health problems.
• Applied research - Carried out to solve immediate specific
and practical problems.
– The goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.
– Intend to improve health care services and add to
greater professional effectiveness in a practical manner.
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16. Basic Vs Applied Research
Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) -
has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge
& the theoretical understanding of the relations among
variables
• The terms “basic” or “fundamental” indicate that,
through theory generation, basic research provides the
foundation for further, sometimes applied research.
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17. Experimental vs. Non-experimental Research
•Experimental research
– Treatments are given to subjects
– Cause-and-effect questions
•Non-experimental research
– Treatments are not given to subjects
– Participants are observed as they naturally exist
Types of research cont…
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19. Types of research
Level of
Analysis
Object of Analysis
Conditions Responses
Individual &
sub-
individual
Biomedical Research
(Basic biological
processes, structure &
function of the human
body, pathological
mechanisms)
Clinical Research
(Efficacy of preventive,
diagnostic, & therapeutic
procedures, natural history of
diseases)
Population Epidemiologic
Research
(Frequency, distribution,
& determinants of
health)
Health Systems research
(Effectiveness, quality, &
costs of services:
development & distribution
of resources for care )
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20. Health systems research
• Research that supports health development has come to
be known as Health Systems Research.
• It is ultimately concerned with improving the health of a
community, by enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness
of the health system as an integral part of the overall
process of socioeconomic development.
• A health system may be described as: A set of cultural beliefs
about health and illness that forms the basis for health-seeking and
health-promoting behaviour.
21. HSR ...
• HSR is undertaken primarily to provide information
to support decision-making at all levels that can
improve the functioning of the health system, some of
the essential features are
• HSR should focus on priority problems.
• It should be action oriented
• An integrated multidisciplinary approach
• The research should be participatory in nature (from
policy makers to community members)
• Research must be timely.
• Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple, short-term
research designs that are likely to yield practical results.
22. Based on the time required to complete the
research:
a)Cross-Sectional Research:
–The researcher makes observations at one point in time.
b)Longitudinal Research:
–the investigator makes observations of people or unit for more
than one time.
–It is more costly than cross-sectional study, but is powerful to
questions about social changes.
–Eg Cohort study
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23. Based on the Type of Data and Technique
used:
a) Quantitative Research:
–Utilizes quantitative (numerical)data and seeks answers
to questions such as:
•how many? How much? How often? Etc
b) Qualitative Research:
–Utilizes qualitative (categorical) data and seeks
answers to questions such as why? How? Etc.
–Most appropriate when the investigators are interested to
study research areas they are not well familiar with.
C) Mixed Research: Combination of both (a & b).
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24. Quantitative Research:
• Scientific investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships.
• Systematic aggregation of quantities of data
• It connects between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of an attribute.
• Objective measurements and analysis of quantitative
data
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25. Features of Quantitative
Research
1. Objective:
• –To classify, count, confirm, or construct statistical model.
• –Begins with deductive approach and clearly defined
research question or hypothesis.
2. Methods of data collection:
• –Laboratory observations.
• –Direct measurements/observations
• –Questionnaire
• –Interview schedule or structured interviews.
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26. Features of Quantitative
Research
3. Selection of Respondents:
–Representativeness
–Sufficiently large sample size
–Random selection/Assignment
–The researcher makes assumptions of distributions.
–Respondents are compared
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27. Features of Quantitative
Research
4. Questions and answers:
–Closed questions
–Answers categories to be prepared in advance.
5. Timing of Analysis:
–After data collection is completed
6. Data analysis:
–Application of statistical procedures:
•Cross tabulations (categories)
•Correlation(scales)
•Tests of significance/hypothesis
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28. Features of Quantitative
Research
7. Results:
–Generalized across group of people.
–Predict future results, and investigate causal
relationship.
–The study can be replicated or repeated, given high
reliability.
–Reliability and validity of the instrument is crucial
–Usually concise
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29. Qualitative
• In quantitative Measurements tell us how often or how
many people behave in a certain way but they do not
adequately answer the “why” & “how” questions.
• Research which attempts to increase our understanding
of why things are the way they are in our social world &
why people act the ways they do is “qualitative”
research.
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30. Qualitative research
Qualitative research - concerned with developing
explanations of social phenomena.
It seeks to answer questions about:
• Why people behave the way they do
• How opinions & attitudes are formed
• How people are affected by the events that go on around
them
• How & why cultures have developed in the way they
have
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31. Comparison of qualitative and quantitative researches
• Quantitative Qualitative
-Closed ended. -Open ended.
-Large samples. -Small samples.
-Reliability is high -Reliability is low
-Validityis low. -Validityis high
-Statistical analysis. -Thematic analysis
-Meaning is determined. -Meaning is derived.
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32. Generally Public health problems are complex because:
• They are multi-causality
• There are new & emerging domestic & international health
problems.
• Social, economic, political, ethnic, environmental, &
genetic factors all are associated with today’s public health
concerns.
• Researchers recognize the need for multiple approaches to
understanding problems & developing effective
interventions that address contemporary public health
issues.
Qualitative Cont…
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33. Research Process
• The research process is a simple means of effectively
locating information for a research project, be it a
research paper, an oral presentation, or something
else assigned by your instructor.
• Because research is a process, you will need to allow
for ample time to refine or change your topic.
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34. Steps in undertaking a research
I. Problem identification and definition
II. Review relevant literatures
III. Choose the appropriate study design
IV. Development of proposals
V. Obtain Ethical Clearance
VI. Issues about funding
VII. Data collection
VIII. Data analysis
IX. Interpreting results
X. Writing a report and Disseminate Findings
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37. Steps of research process
• The steps below provide a simple and effective
approach for conducting research for a paper
Step 1 - Choose your topic.
Step 2 - Find basic information.
Step 3 - Refine your topic.
Step 4 - Locate and retrieve materials.
Step 5 - Evaluate relevancies of materials.
Step 6 - Take notes.
Step 7 - Construct your project.
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38. Step 1 - Choose your topic.
• Select a topic that is of interest to you, or if you have been
assigned a topic, select an aspect or perspective of the topic
that interests you.
• If you are having trouble selecting a topic, you may find it
useful to browse magazines, journals, newspapers, reference
sources, and online databases.
• Remember, selecting a topic is the most important decision
you will make in the research process.
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39. Step 2: Find Basic Information
• Find basic information on your topic.
• Select a few key terms from your topic and search for basic
information in reference sources such as subject
encyclopedias, bibliographies, handbooks, library catalogs,
books, online databases, and Internet sources (Web sites).
• This preliminary search will help you determine how much or
how little information is available about your topic.
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40. Step 3: Refine Your Topic
• Based on the quality and number of items located,
you may need to refine your topic.
• If your initial search renders too little
information, try broadening your topic.
• If your initial search renders too much
information, you will need to narrow your
topic.
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41. Step 4: Locate and Retrieve Materials
• Once you have identified your topic, you can to
begin to locate and retrieve information.
• Before you begin locating information about your
topic, you will need to identify what information
formats (articles, books, websites, dissertations,
etc.,) are needed and select the appropriate
research tool(s).
• The information format is usually determined by
the requirements of your research assignment or
instructor.
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42. Step 5: Evaluate Relevancy of Materials
• After locating your information you will need to
review them for usefulness and relevancy to your
topic.
• A clearly, well-defined topic allows you to
quickly eliminate irrelevant information.
• After you determine the relevancy, you then need
to evaluate the quality of your information.
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43. • The basic criteria for evaluating information are
as follows:
1. Authority – Who is the author? What are their
credentials?
2. Accuracy – Are the facts verifiable? Is the information
correct?
3. Objectivity – What is the purpose? Is there a bias?
4. Currency – Is the information up-to-date?
5. Coverage – What is the scope of the information? What
does it focus on?
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44. Step 6: Take Notes
• Throughout your research process you will need to keep accurate
notes of what research tools and search strategies you used–this
ensures that you won’t retrieve the same information twice, as
well as allowing you to reproduce a particular search if needed.
• Notate complete citations for all your information even if you are
unsure of whether or not you will use the information.
• A "complete citation" includes identifying information that allows
you to locate information when needed.
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45. Step 7: Construct Your Project
• Finally you are now ready to start preparing your
paper, presentation, or project.
• You should have enough research materials to support
your research topic.
• Be careful to cite any information that you have
"quoted directly" or "paraphrased", this way you can
avoid committing plagiarism.
• Remember that research is a circular process, you may
need to go back and locate additional information that
your previous search did not locate.
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46. Main components of any research work
–Preparing a research proposal/planning
–Fieldwork (i.e., data collection)
–Analyzing data & preparing a research report
Basic study steps
–State the problem (what are the questions?)
–Devise a plan of action(what will I do?)
–Implement the plan (how I do it?)
–Analyze data (what happened?)
–Interpret data (what does this mean?)
–Re-examination (is my logic correct? What next?)
Research Cont…
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48. Research topic selection
Research problem identification
• Research problem is a gap b/n what is actually existed and
what is desired
• Sources of research problem:
• Observations
• Experts
• Literature reviews
• Professional conferences ETC
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49. When dose a research required?
• Problems are the initiating force behind a research,
however all problems does not require a research.
Research is required iff :
• There is perceived difference or discrepancy between
what exists and the ideal or planned situation;
• The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear; and
• There is more than one possible answer to a question or
more than one solution to the problem.
50. When dose a research required?
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• Example1: In district “ Y “ a report showed that in the first month
there were 500 children under one year old who started
immunization, but at the end of the year it was found out that there
were only 25 children who completed their vaccination.
• Discrepancy: All the 500 children should completed their
vaccination but only 5% out of those who started vaccination have
completed.
• Problem (research) question: why only 5% of the children
completed their vaccination?
• Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health centers and 10
health stations found in district “Y” only 2 health stations were
functioning, the rest were closed due to insecurity in the area
51. • Problem situation: In district “Z” (population 150,000) there are
2 health centers, 1 hospital and 15 health stations and all of them
function smoothly. However, at the end of the year it was found
that the EPI coverage was only 25%.
• Discrepancy: Although district “Z” had 100% availability of
health services and at least 80% of the children should have had
full vaccinations the EPI coverage was only 25% as seen above.
• Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI coverage
Possible answers:
Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions.
The MCH, EPI, OPD, CDD, etc… programmes might not have been
integrated; hence children might have missed opportunities in getting
immunization.
The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective and other
reasons.
52. Criteria for prioritising research problems
(selecting research topic)
• Relevance (how large? How severe? Who affected?)
• Avoidance of duplication (check if researched before &
review to identify if still gap exists)
• Urgency of data needed (how urgent data required?)
• Political acceptability( gov.policy support it?)
• Feasibility of study (check resources you will require?)
• Feasibility of study (check resources you will require?)
• Applicability of results (how likely results be applied?)
• Ethical acceptability (how likely results be applied?)
• Ethical acceptability 52
53. b) Scales for rating research topics
Relevance
• 1 = Not relevant
• 2 = Relevant
• 3 = very relevant
Avoidance of duplication
• 1 = Sufficient information already available
• 2 = Some information available but major issues not
covered
• 3 = No sound information available on which to base
problem-solving
Topic Cont…
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54. Feasibility
1 = Study not feasible considering available resources
2 = Study feasible considering available resources
3 = Study very feasible considering available resources
Political acceptability
1 = Topic not acceptable
2 = Topic somewhat acceptable
3 = Topic fully acceptable
Applicability
1 = No chance of recommendations being implemented
2 =Some chance of recommendations being implemented
3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented
Topic Cont…
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55. Urgency
1 = Information not urgently needed
2 = Information could be used but a delay of some months
would be acceptable
3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making
Ethical acceptability
1 = Major ethical problems
2 = Minor ethical problems
3 = No ethical problems
N.B. The above rating should be based on the existing data
& not on mere assumptions
Topic Cont…
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56. Rating Sheet - Rating scale: 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high
Criteria for
selecting a
research topic
Proposed topic
Health problem I Health problem II Health problem III
Relevance
Avoidance of
duplication
Feasibility
Political
acceptability
Applicability
Urgency of data
needed
Ethical
acceptability
Total
Topic Cont…
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57. Writing research topic
• Topic should informative, specific, concise and
understandable
• Should indicate nature and purpose of your research i.e it
should answer what?when?onwhom?how?
• Should be brief and to the point(usually 10-15 words)
• Should contain the key words or concepts underlying the
work rather than including unnecessary words suchas
“observation of” or “a study of”
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58. Homework
• Individually identify three research topics that
can potentially is used in the proposal
development & do prioritization.
