Chap. 2 The Development of the Learners

CHAPTER II:
Reported by: Frances June A. Moyet

A. Principles of Growth and Development
B. Factors that Influence Growth and
Development
C. Havighurt’s Developmental Tasks During
Life Span
D. Stages of the Life Span
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy
3. Babyhood
4. Early Childhood Stage
5. Late Childhood
6. Puberty
7. Adolescence stage
8. Early Adulthood
9. Middle Age
10. Old age

E. Exceptional Children
Types of Exceptionalities
1. Physical Disabilities
2. Mental retardation
3. Behavioral Disabilities
4. Sensory Impairments
5. Learning Disabilities

G r o w t h  quantitative changes.
D e v e l o p m e n t
 Qualitative changes
D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l e a n e r
 Undergoes a
complicated
process, a
pattern of growth
that is unique in
every individual.

1. Development is Continuous
2. Development is Gradual
3. Development is Sequential
4. Rate of development varies person to person
5. Development proceeds from general to specific
6. Most traits are correlated in development
7. Growth and development is a product of both
heredity and environment
8. Development is predictable
9. Development
10.There is a constant interaction between all
factors of development

1. Development
is Continuous.
 The process of growth and
development continues from the
conception till the individual reaches
maturity.
 It does not come all on a sudden. It is
also cumulative in nature.
2. Development
is Gradual.
 Most psychologist agree that
development is sequential or orderly.3. Development
is Sequential.
 Rate of development is not uniform4. Rate of
development
varies person
to person.

5. Development
proceeds from
general to
specific.
 In all areas of development, general
activity always precedes specific
activity .
 Generally, it is seem that the child
whose mental development is above
average, is also superior in so many
other aspect like health, sociability and
aptitudes.
6. Most traits are
correlated in
development.
 Development is influence by both
heredity and environment. Both are
responsible for human growth and
development
7. Growth and
development is a
product of both
heredity and
environment

8. Development
is predictable
 In difference in physiological and
psychological potentialities can be
predicted by observation and
psychological test.
 Development brings about both
structural functional changes.9. Development
 Development in one area is highly
related to development in other
areas.
10. There is a
constant
interaction
between all factors
of development

1. Expectation
2. Giving information
3. Preparation

1.It helps us to know what to
expect and when to expect it.
Ex: Setting a high standard to a
child by her parents.

2. It gives the adult information
as to when to stimulate and
not to stimulate the child
Ex: Planning the environmental
encouragement that must be offered to
a child.
Ex: When to motivate a child a child for
walking.

3. It makes possible for parents,
teachers and others who work with
children to prepare the child ahead
of time for the changes that will
take place in his body, his interest,
or his behavior.
Ex: Preparing a child for a physical
change in his body and his
environment.

 Generally refers to a natural process of growing up
ascribed to heredity.
1. Principle of directionality.
2. Principle of functional asymmetry.
3. Principle of self – regulating
fluctuation.

1. Principle of
directionality.
 Development governed by
maturation has clear direction.

2. Principle of
functional
asymmetry.
 Accompanying such motor
asymmetry
 Humans have tendency to
develop asymmetrically.

3. Principle of self – regulating fluctuation.
 Is a conscious & non conscious process
by which people regulate their thoughts,
emotions, attention, behavior and
impulses.
 Development does not proceed at the
same even pace along all fronts
simultaneously.
Ex. The child does not usually begin talking
until he has learned to walk

G
E
N
E
S
 basic unit of heredity: the basic unit capable of
transmitting characteristics from one generation to
the next. It consists of a specific sequence of DNA
or RNA that occupies a fixed position locus on a
chromosome.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
C
H
R
O
M
O
S
O
M
E
S
 rod-shaped structure carrying genes: a
rod-shaped structure, usually found in pairs in
a cell nucleus, that carries the genes that
determine sex and the characteristics an
organism inherits from its parents.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

1. Heredity
 Direction & pattern given by the
genes to growth & development
 Transmission of genetic
characteristics from the parents to
the offspring.
Man & Woman received 23 chromosomes from each parents or 46 in all.

M E N S T R A T I O N & O V U L A T I O N C Y C L E

2. Fraternal (Dizygotic)1. Identical (Monozygotic)

M
A
L
E
C
E
L
L
X X
F
E
M
A
L
E
C
E
L
L
Y X
Y X
X X
X
Y
XX

Down syndrome
 Commonly caused by an extra
chromosomes and to
hereditary
 Factors also include:
› The child is born to younger
parents
› Older parents
› Chromosomal accident.
( occur during development of the
ovum & sperm / zygote)

Down syndrome
 Signs:
› Downward sloping skin fold at the
inner corners of the eyes
› Small hand
› Flat nose
› Protruding tongue
› Defective heart, eyes, ears
› Mental & motor retardation.

Down syndrome
 Statistics:
› 1-800 babies born
› Older parents (increased risk)
Mothers age Chances
25 yrs old - 1-2000
40yrs old - 1-100
45 up - 1-40
› Father age 49mim – 55 max.
(Abroms & Bennett, 1981 as cited by Papalia, 1989 )

2. Environmental
 Includes the condition inside & outside the
organism they in way influence its behavior,
growth & development or life processes
except the genes.
 2 Types:
 Internal environment
 External environment
classified: physical & social

2. Environmental
 Internal environment
 Is the immediate environment within
which the genes exist and function in
the nucleus of a cell.
 All the chemical materials held
together by the cell membrane may
be called the Intracellular internal
environment.

2. Environmental
 External environment
 Classified:
1. External Physical environment
 Is made up of all the things in
the world that affect us directly
and all things that stimulate our
sense organs.
2. External Social environment
 All the human beings who in
any way influence us.

Birth – 5 yrs. 18 – 35 yrs. 36 – 60 yrs.13 – 17 yrs. 60 + yrs.6 – 12
yrs.
Infancy & Early
Childhood
Early
Adulthood Middle Age
Adolescence
Old Age
Middle
Childhood

ROBERT J.
HAVIGHURST
 An educator and expert on aging
 emphasized that learning is basic and that
is continuous through life span
F E R T I L I Z AT I O N
 A process by which sperm cell & ovum fuse to
form a single new cell is most likely to occur
about 14 days after the beginning of a
woman’s menstrual cycle.

10 STAGES : 1. Prenatal period
2. Infancy
3. Babyhood
4. Early Childhood
5. Late Childhood
6. Puberty/ preadolescence
7. Adolescence
8. Early Adulthood
9. Middle Age
10. Old Age/ Senescence

1. Prenatal (Conception to birth)

 9 calendar months
 38 weeks or 266 days the average length of the
prenatal period.
 3 stages: Conception
 Germinal Stage (fertilization – 2 weeks)
 Embryonic Stage(2 – 12 weeks)
 Fetal Stage (8 – 12 weeks to birth)
 3 stages: Birth
 Dilation of the cervix
 Descent & emergence of the baby
 Expulsion of the placenta and the umbilical
cord

 3 stages: During Conception
Germinal
Stage
characterized
by rapid cell
division
Embryonic Stage
characterized by rapid growth and
differentiation of major body system
& organ
Fetal Stage
characterized by rapid growth
and changes in body form.
Full
Term

 (During Birth )1 stages: Dilation of the cervix
 Uterus contracts
 Aprox. 15-20
mins. interval
 Cervix flattens &
dilates to allow
fetus to pass
through
 in labor
 Last 2-16 hours
 Longer for the 1st child
 At the end of this stage the cervix is
dilated to about 10 cm &
contractions occurs every minutes
or so.

 (During Birth ) 2 stages: Descent & emergence of the baby
 Involves actual
delivery
 Expulsion last from
2-60 mins. / more
 Baby’s head appear first
(crowning) then the rest of the
body soon follows

 (During Birth ) 3 stages: Expulsion of placenta &
umbilical cord
 Involves delivery of
the Placenta
 Mild
contractions
continue for
some time
 Help decrease the blood flow to the uterus &
reduce the uterus to normal size

Lamaze Method by Dr. Fernand Lamaze
 Most popular alternative birthing method
 It includes instruction in anatomy & physiology to
remove fear.
 Woman in labor can condition her responses to
contractions through breathing & imagery to
minimize her pain.

Lamaze Method by Dr. Fernand Lamaze
 Techniques:
 Controlled deep breathing (push – up breathing exercise)
 Light massage of the abdomen
 Concentrating on focal point (photograph, flower/object)
 The coach is very much involved
 Learn & practice
› relaxation
› Visualization
› Breathing techniques
› Comfort measures

Leboyer Method by Frederick Leboyer
 Indian Chanting
 Believes that when a woman is giving birth, she is
reborn herself.
 According to him, when a woman has a restless on
the womb, it signifies that a fetus is unhappy.
 In childbirth, breathing is ultimate
 Infant is bath in warm water and place on its mother
belly right after birth.

Bradley Method
 Natural childbirth method
 They disavow the safety of sonograms, episiotomy
and regional anesthesia
 Encourage the use of midwives rather than technical
oriented doctors
 Parents should take the responsibility for the birth
place, procedures, & emergency back-up
 Bradley teaches conditioning exercises & muscle
relaxation in labor.(slow deep breathing, take your time
approach is advocated in a quiet, unlit,pillow laden)
 Baby is immediately breast milk.

Kitzinger Method Based on Dick-Read & Lamaze
 Mental imagery to enhance relaxation
 “Puppet Strings relaxation”
 Long, slow, deep chest breathing methods
 According to this method the mother is encouraged to
labor in any position that is comfortable for her.
 Pushing is done when the body tell you.

Gamper Method
 The key to this method is the self- determination &
confidence instilled by instruction in the ability to work
& cooperate with the natural forces of childbirth.
 A normal, natural rate of deep abdominal breathing is
taught to lessen the contraction.

Simkins Method
 This approach as childbirth works the strengths of the
couple giving birth.
 Encouraged to use whatever means of breathing and
style

 This technique includes relaxation of the
pelvic floor muscles.
› Squatting technique
Noble Method by Elizabeth Noble

 This method put the mother & baby both in the water
› Laboring mother
submerge in a
pool of water
Odent Method by Michael Odent

2. Infancy (first 2 weeks)
 Adjustment period
 Sensitive to touch
 Characteristics
 Shortest of all developmental period
 A time radical adjustment
 A plateau in development
 A preview of later development
 A hazardous period
 If the infant is premature:
 Requires special attention available in the hospital
 Weight about 2.5 kg.
 Placed on the incubator
 Require tube feeding

2. Infancy (first 2 weeks)
 Breast milk is the ideal food for infant
 Breast feeding is the best possible way of meeting the
nutritional needs
 Helps protects the infant against various
diseases(Colostrum)
 Infant will experience a unique physical & emotional
closeness to the mother.
 Establish a very special, satisfying mutual bond
between mother & infant

3. Babyhood (end of 2 weeks – 2 yrs. old)

 Labeled
 1st yr. – as Lap Baby (helpless individual)
 2nd yr. – as Toddler (achieved enough body
control to be relatively independent)
 Development of physical growth(Gradual) and
physiological functions (rapid)
 Speaks/communicate
 crying
 babbling
 gesturing
 emotional expressions.
3. Babyhood (end of 2 weeks – 2 yrs. old)

4. Early Childhood (2 – 6 yrs. old)
 Labeled
 Physical Growth:
 Increase during the years from 2-6 years old
 Boys are slightly taller than girls
 Muscular, skeletal, nervous, respiratory, circulatory
and immune system are maturing.
 All primary teeth are present
 Proper growth and health depends on nutrition.
Parents Psychologist Educator
•the problem
•the troublesome
•toy age
•pre-gang
•exploratory
•questioning age
•Pre-school age

1. Recognition ability
 is better than recall ability; increases during this
period.
2. Symbolic function
 isimitation and play enable children to mentally
represent and reflect upon people, object and events
3. Speech development
 Social speech - intended to be understood by someone
other than the speaker.
 Private speech - talking aloud to oneself with no intent
to communicate with others.

 Children enjoy the repetition essential to learning skills
 Adventurous and like to try new things
 Attend day care centers, pre-school and kindergarten
 To parents: do not put academic pressure on children 2-4
years old.
 Characterized by morality by constraint, which means this is
the time when children learns through:
› Punishment and praise
› Obey rules automatically
› Discipline differs (authoritarian/democratic)

1. Unoccupied behavior
2. Onlooker behavior
3. Solitary independent
play
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Cooperative or
organized
supplementary play

1. Unoccupied behavior
 the child is apparently not
playing but occupies himself
with watching
 child spend most of his time
watching other children play.
2. Onlooker behavior
 child plays alone and
independently with toys
3. Solitary independent
play
 child independently plays with
toys that are like those of other
children
 plays beside rather than with
the other children.
4. Parallel play

5. Associative play  child plays with other
children; there is
borrowing and lending of
toys.
 plays in the group that is
organized
 attainment of some
competitive goals.
 playing formal games.
6. Cooperative/organized
supplementary play

1. Functional /
Sensorimotor play
2. Constructive play
3. Dramatic / Pretend play
4. Games with rules

1. Functional /
Sensorimotor play
 A simple repetitive movement
with or without object.
 Manipulation of object to
construct or to create
something.
2. Constructive play
 Substitution of imaginary
situation to satisfy personal
wishes and needs
3. Dramatic / Pretend
play
 Any activity with rules, structure
and goals.
4. Games with rules

5. Late Childhood (6 – 12 yrs. old)
•Troublesome
• sloppy or
quarrelsome
•gang age
•age of conformity
•age of creativity
•Elementary
 Labeled
 Health
 Nutrition
 Immunization
 Sex
 Intelligence
 Skills:
 Self-help skills
 Social help skills
 School skills
 Play skills

 Labeled
 Health
 Nutrition
 Immunization
 Sex
 Intelligence
 Skills:
 Self-help skills
 Social help skills
 School skills
 Play skills
•Troublesome
• sloppy or
quarrelsome
•gang age
•age of conformity
•age of creativity
•Elementary

Self – concept
 3 important aspects:
 understanding oneself
 regulating one’s behavior
 developing self-esteem
Self – esteem
 4 influential factors :
 sense of significance
 competence
 virtue
 power

 Building physical skills necessary for ordinary games
 Building a wholesome attitude towards oneself as a
growing organism.
 Learning to get along with age mates
 Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or
feminine social roles.
 Developing concept necessary for everyday living
 Developing a conscience, a sense of morality and a
scale of values
 Developing attitudes towards social groups and
institutions.
 Achieving personal independence

6. Puberty (10 – 14 yrs. old)
 Comes from a Latin word pubertas means “age of
manhood”
 Refers to physical change which occurs when the
individual becomes sexually mature and is capable of
producing offspring.
 Onset of sexual maturity
 Number of growth changes
 Pubescence – sexual maturation is taking place
 Spermarche – the first ejaculation of semen for
males
 Menarche – beginning of the menstrual cycle for
female

BOYS CONCERN
•Nocturnal emission
•Secondary sex
change
(ex. Pubic hair,
beard, change of
voice)
•Lack of interest in
girls

GIRLS CONCERN
•Menarche
•Menstruation
•Secondary sex
characteristics
(ex. Hips goes larger,
boobs become bigger)
•Lack of sex appeals

BOYS & GIRLS CONCERN
•Sex organs
•Body disproportion
•Awkwardness
•Age of maturing
•Masturbation

6. Adolescences (13 – 14 to 18 yrs. old)
 Age of legal maturity
 Interest of adolescents fall into 7 categories:
1. Recreational interest
2. Personal interest
3. Social
4. Educational
5. Vocational
6. Religious
7. Interest in status symbols

 Achieving new and more mature relations with
age mate of both sexes
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social roles
 Achieving emotional independence from
parents and other adults
 Preparing for an economic career
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 A time when an individual searches for identity
6. Adolescences (13 – 14 to 18 yrs. old)

G. Stanley Hall
 formulate a theory of adolescence
 he believed that young people’s effort to adjust to their changing
bodies ushered in period of storm and stress.
 Adolescence is a period of intense, fluctuating emotions from
which young people may emerge morally stronger.
Sigmund Freud
 The genital stage: psychosexual theory
 Adolescence is the stage of mature adult sexuality
 The physiological changes of puberty reawaken the libido,
the basic energy source that fuels the sex drive.

7. Early Adulthood (18 to 40 yrs. old)
 setting down age/Starting a family
 Reproductive age/Rearing children
 Problem age
 A time of social isolation
 Getting started in an occupation
 A time of commitments
 Selecting a mate
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Period of dependency/Taking a civic responsibility
 A time of value change
 A creative age

8. Middle age (40 to 60 yrs. old)
 10 important characteristics of middle age:
1. Dreaded period
2. Time of transition
3. Time of stress
4. Dangerous age
5. Awkward age
6. Time of achievement
7. Time of evaluation
8. Evaluation by a double standard
9. Time of the emptiness
10. Time of boredome.

 Female menopausal syndrome
 is due partly to estrogen deprivation
 Male climacteric syndrome
 due to combination of physiological and
psychological conditions that often lead to changes
in attitudes, behavior and self evaluation.

 Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
 Assisting teenage children to become responsible
and happy adult
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes
of middle age
 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in
one’s occupational career.
 Adjusting to aging parents

10. Old age (60 and above yrs.)
 Problem of Old Age
 Lack of mental sharpness
 Disorientation to life
 Lack of security
 Inability to concentrate,
forgetfulness, inability to
converse, to hear to see
 Brings future shock
 A person that has some
wisdom
 Physical hazards:
 Diseases
 Physical handicaps
 Malnutrition
 Dental disorder
 Accidents
 Sexual deprivation

 Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and
health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduce income
 Adjusting to death of spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of
one’s age group
 Adapting to social roles in flexible way
8. Middle age (40 to 60 yrs. old)10. Old age (60 and above yrs.)

Impairment
 Refers to disease or defective tissue
Ex: A visual loss due to an illness
Disability
 refers to the problem that an impaired or disables
person might have met on interacting with the
environment.
Handicap
 refers to the reduction of function or the absence
of a particular body parts

1. Physical disabilities
2. Mental retardation
3. Behavioral disabilities
4. Sensory impairments
5. Learning disabilities

 Forms
a. Impairments of bone and muscles
b. Nerves and muscles
c. Deformities and or absence of body
organs and systems
 Causes
1. Prenatal factors-before and after
conception
2. Perinatal factors- arise during the
period of birth
3. Post natal factors- condition after birth

 Causes
1. Prenatal factors
Genetics
Prematurity
Infection
Malnutrition
Radiation
Metabolic disturbances
Drug abuse
2. Perinatal factors
Birth injuries
Difficult labor
Hemorrhage
3. Post natal factors
Infection
Tumor and abscess in the
brain
Fractures and dislocation
Tuberculosis of the bone
Post seizure-post surgical
complication
Arthritis/ rheumatism

 Characteristics
1. Physical Includes:
limping
Abnormal gait
Incorrect posture
Hunchback
Deformities of
extremities
Uncontrolled
movement
Absence of limbs
Hypoactive
2. Intellectual
Behavior is related to
mental development and
ability to learn
Slow mental
development
Low academic
achievement
Difficulty in certain
subject like physical
education

 Characteristics
3. Social/emotional
2 classification
Orthopaedic impairments- refers to the bones and muscular
defects
>Poliomyelitis > Osteomyelitis
> Bone fracture > Mascular dystrophy
Neuro -muscular impairements - defects of the nerves
•Cerebral palsy
•Erb’s palsy
•Congenitally crippled
> Club foot > Club hand
> Polyductylism > Syndactylism

Poliomyelitis
Bone fracture
Cerebral palsy
Club foot
Club hand
PolyductylismSyndactylism

2. Mental Retardation
 Causes
1. Cultural familial- due to complex
interaction between environment and
hereditary factors
2. Organic causes- result from
chromosomal defects.
Ex. Mongolism or down syndrome

 Characteristics
1. Physical Includes:
Smaller in stature
Increase incidence in
physical defects
Poor motor
coordination
Slit eyes, round face,
stubby fingers
2. Intellectual
Poor memory
Limited ability to
understand
Impoverished language
3. Social/emotional
Manifest perseveration
Behavior are extreme
Hyperkinetic

 DEVELOPMENT
1. Mildly retarded
Educable
2. Moderately retarded
Not educable in field of
academic achievement
3. Severely retarded
Trainable
4. Profoundly retarded
Not trainable
Need assistance
Usefulness

3. Behavioral Disability
 Types
1. Schizophrenia- Psychotic disorder
Characteristic:
Distorted thinking
Abnormal perception
Bizarre behavior and emotion
2. Autism
Characteristics:
Bizarre behavior
Extreme social isolation
Delayed development appears
at age 3
3. Social maladjustment
Behavior of violation
Established social mores and standards

 Characteristics
A. CONDUCT DISORDER BEHAVIOR
>Aggression > Noncompliance
> Disruptive behavior > Inattention
> Hyperactivity > Attention-seeking
B. PERSONALITY DISORDER
> Anxiety > Inferiority > Withdrawal
C. INADEQUACY-IMMATURITY
> Passive
> Social immaturity
D. SOCIALIZED AGGRESSION
3. Behavioral Disability

4. Sensory Impairment
 VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS
 Reduce visual acuity- poor sight
 Ambiyopia- lazy eye
 Hyperopia- farsighted
 Myopia- near sighted
 Astigmatism- imbalance eyesight
Other visual impairments:
Albinism
Cataracts
Macular degeneration
Diabetic retinopathy
Glaucoma
Retinitis
Retinopathy

 HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Includes:
Deaf
Hard of hearing
Prelingual deafness
Postlingual deafness
Sensory neural deafness
3. Behavioral Disability4. Sensory Impairment

 HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Causes:
3. Behavioral Disability4. Sensory Impairment
Prenatal Perinatal Postnatal Other Causes
•Toxic
Conditions
•Viral Disease
•Traumatic
Experience
During
Delivery
•Lack Of
Oxygen Due
To Prolonged
Labor
•Heavy
Sedation
•Diseases
•Meningitis
•Otitis Media
•Accidents/
Trauma
•Heredity
•Prematurity
•Malnutrition

5. Learning Disabilities
 Considered as a hidden disability characterized by
poor academic performance, delayed physical
development accompanied by academic, social and
psychological problems.
 Causes:
Problematic pregnancies; before, during and
after delivery
biochemical imbalance
environmental factors
genetics

 Classification of learning disabilities:
Academic
Developmental
Language Disorder
Thinking Disabilities
Memory Deficits
Attention Disorder
3. Behavioral Disability4. Sensory Impairment5. Learning Disabilities

Chap. 2 The Development of the Learners

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Chap. 2 The Development of the Learners