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August 6, 2010 Wikipedia/Twitter:
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Annenberg School for Communication and
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Wikipedia Lessons

How can “the crowd” be part of
the news process?

User generated content

Audience-created media
vs
Community-curated works

OpenStreetmap

Like Wikipedia of maps
Contribute GPS “trails”
and traces to project
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license

OpenStreetmap - Haiti

Using:
Yahoo imagery
CIA maps
AFTER GeoEye

BEFORE

http://brainoff.com/weblog/2010/01/14/1518

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context, historical analysis
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press releases, live coverage,
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wisdom

knowledge

photos
Information

sports, weather, ﬁnancial
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Impact of Internet Media

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wisdom

knowledge

commodity photos
user generated Information
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data

Journalistic Activity/Values

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knowledge

commodity photos
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data


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research
storytelling wisdom
fact checking
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commodity photos
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data


editing fairness
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research accuracy
storytelling wisdom balance
fact checking transparency
knowledge

commodity photos
multiple sources
data

Curation
editing fairness
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research accuracy
storytelling wisdom balance
fact checking transparency
knowledge

commodity photos
multiple sources
data

Working the crowd

Content...
creation vs curation

Citizen Journalists

CNN iReport
YouTube, Ustream.tv
Flickr

Creative Commons Attribution Sharealike 3.0 Wikimedia User:Didoundp

Crowdsourcing - Discrete tasks

Open Streetmap
Guardian UK
TPM Muckraker

Crowdsourcing - Document dump

UK expenses scandal
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US DOJ attorneys
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Wisdom of Crowds
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Diversity
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Wikinews difﬁculties

Complex narrative writing
Hyperlocalized knowledge
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Sources and facts

Meet The Press, David
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Wikipedia: Richard Nixon

Citations and References

Wikipedia: Richard Nixon
A Decade of Growth for Citations and References for [[Richard Nixon]]

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Richard Nixon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by KevinOKeeffe (talk | contribs | block) at 22:33, 5
August 2010. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.
(del/undel) (diff) ! Previous revision | Current revision (diff) | Newer revision " (diff)

An accepted version of this page, accepted on 5 August 2010, was based off this revision.
"Nixon" redirects here. For other uses, see Nixon (disambiguation).
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22,
Richard M. Nixon
1994) was the 37th President of the United States from
1969–1974 and was also the 36th Vice President of the
United States (1953–1961). Nixon was the only President
to resign the office and also the only person to be elected
twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After
completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he
graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937
and returned to California to practice law in La Habra.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, he joined the United
States Navy, serving in the Pacific theater, and rose to
the rank of Lieutenant Commander during World War II.
He was elected in 1946 as a Republican to the House of
Representatives representing California's 12th
Congressional district, and in 1950 to the United States
Senate. He was selected to be the running mate of 37th President of the United States
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party nominee, in
In office
the 1952 Presidential election, becoming the second
January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974
youngest Vice President in history.[1] He waged an
Vice President Spiro Agnew (1969–1973)
unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly
Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
losing to John F. Kennedy, and an unsuccessful campaign
for Governor of California in 1962; following these losses, Preceded by Lyndon B. Johnson
Nixon announced his withdrawal from political life. In Succeeded by Gerald Ford
1968, however, he ran again for president of the United
36th Vice President of the United
States and was elected.
States
The most immediate task facing President Nixon was a
In office
resolution of the Vietnam War. He initially escalated the
January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
conflict, overseeing incursions into neighboring countries,
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
though American military personnel were gradually
withdrawn and he successfully negotiated a ceasefire with Preceded by Alben W. Barkley
North Vietnam in 1973, effectively ending American Succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson
involvement in the war. His foreign policy initiatives were
United States Senator
largely successful: his groundbreaking visit to the People's
from California
Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations
In office
between the two nations, and he initiated détente and the
December 4, 1950 – January 1, 1953
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. On the
domestic front, he implemented new economic policies Preceded by Sheridan Downey
which called for wage and price control and the abolition Succeeded by Thomas Kuchel
of the gold standard. He was reelected by a landslide in
Member of the
1972. In his second term, the nation was afflicted with
US House of Representatives from
economic difficulties. In the face of likely impeachment for
California's 12th District
his role in the Watergate scandal,[2] Nixon resigned on
August 9, 1974. He was later pardoned by his successor, In office
Gerald Ford, for any federal crimes he may have January 3, 1947 – December 1, 1950
committed while in office. Preceded by Jerry Voorhis

In his retirement, Nixon became a prolific author and Succeeded by Patrick J. Hillings
undertook many foreign trips. His work as an elder
Born January 9, 1913
statesman helped to rehabilitate his public image. He
Yorba Linda, California
suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died
four days later at the age of 81. Died April 22, 1994 (aged 81)
New York City, New York
Contents [hide] Resting place Nixon Presidential Library
1 Early life Yorba Linda, California
2 Law practice
Political party Republican
3 Marriage
Spouse(s) Thelma Catherine "Pat"
4 World War II
Ryan
5 Congressional career
5.1 House of Representatives Children Tricia Nixon Cox
5.2 Senate Julie Nixon Eisenhower
6 Vice Presidency (1953–1961) Alma mater Whittier College (B.A.)
7 1960 presidential election Duke University School of
8 Wilderness years Law (LL.B.)
9 1968 presidential election Occupation Lawyer
10 Presidency (1969–1974)
Religion Quaker
10.1 First term
Signature
10.2 Second term
10.3 Judicial appointments
Military service
10.4 Pardons
Service/branch United States Navy
11 Later life
11.1 Pardon and illness Years of 1942–1946
11.2 Rehabilitation service
11.3 Elder statesman Rank Lieutenant commander
12 Death and funeral Battles/wars World War II (Pacific
13 Legacy Theater)
14 Personality and public image
Awards American Campaign Medal
15 Bibliography
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign
16 Notes
Medal (with two service
17 References
stars)
18 External links
World War II Victory Medal

Early life [edit]

Richard Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a
house his father had built in Yorba Linda, California. [3][4][5] His mother was a Quaker, and his
upbringing was marked by conservative Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from
drinking, dancing, and swearing. His father converted from Methodism to Quakerism after his
marriage.[5] Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925),
and Ed (born 1930).[6] Four of the five of the Nixon boys were named after early English kings;
Richard was named after Richard the Lionhearted.[7]
Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he would later quote a saying of Eisenhower to
describe his boyhood, "We were poor, but the glory of it was, we didn't know it."[8] The Nixon family
ranch failed in 1922, and the family then moved to East Whittier, California, in an area with many
Quakers, where his father opened a grocery score and gas station.[9] Richard's younger brother Arthur
died in 1925 after a short illness,[10] and his older brother Harold, whom Richard greatly admired, died
of tuberculosis in 1933. [11]
Nixon attended Fullerton High School in Fullerton, but later he transferred to Whittier High School,
where he graduated second in his class in 1930. [12] He lost the 1929 student body presidential
election at Whittier to a more popular student, a loss which wounded him, but would be his last
electoral defeat for 31 years. [13] Richard was offered a scholarship to Harvard, but his family lacked
the money for him to travel to and live in the East; he instead lived at home and took up a scholarship
to Whittier College.[14][15] a local Quaker school, where he co-founded a fraternity known as The
Orthogonian Society. Nixon was a formidable debater, standout in collegiate drama productions,
student body president, and was on the college baseball, football and track teams. [15][16] While at
Whittier, he lived at home and worked at his family's store; [15] he also taught Sunday school at East

Miniature view of
Whittier Friends Church, where he remained a member all his life. In 1934, he graduated second in his
class from Whittier.[15] In 1933, Nixon became engaged to Ola Florence Welch; daughter of the
Whittier police chief; the two broke up 1935. [17]
Nixon received a full scholarship to Duke University School of Law.[15] At the time, the law school was
new and sought to attract the top students by offering scholarships.[18] This high-expense approach to
building a law school applied to the faculty as well, which was given high salaries; most professors had
national or international reputations.[19] The number of scholarships were greatly reduced for second
and third year students, forcing the students into intense competition. [18] Nixon was elected president
of the Duke Bar Association [20] and graduated third in his class in June 1937. [15] Nixon later spoke
about the influence of his alma mater, saying, "I always remember that whatever I have done in the
past or may do in the future, Duke University is responsible in one way or another." [21]

Law practice [edit]

Although Nixon's first choice was to get a job with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, he returned to
California and was admitted to the bar in 1937. He began practicing with Wingert and Bewley, [15]
where he worked on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters as
well as on wills.
By his own admission, Nixon would not work on divorce because he was "severely embarrassed by
women's confessions of sexual misconduct." Nixon found the practice of law unexciting, but thought
that it would gain him experience that would be beneficial in a future political career. [22] In 1938, he
opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California,[23] becoming a full partner
in the firm the following year.[24]

Marriage [edit]

In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower.
There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan.[15][25] Nixon pursued her,
but initially Ryan was not interested in a relationship. He began making unannounced visits to her
home and would take her on Sunday drives to the Quaker Sunday School where he was a teacher.[26]
After several proposals, Ryan eventually agreed to marry Nixon and they wed at a small ceremony on
June 21, 1940. [15]
After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons moved to Long Beach, then settled into an apartment in East
Whittier a few months later.[27] In January 1942, they moved to Washington, D.C., where Richard
Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration.[15]

World War II [edit]

Nixon was eligible for an exemption from military service, both as a Quaker and
through his job working for the OPA, but he did not seek one and was
commissioned into the United States Navy in August 1942. [15] He was trained
at Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island and was assigned to
Ottumwa Naval Air Station, Iowa, for seven months. He was subsequently
reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat
Air Transport Command, supporting the logistics of operations in the South
West Pacific theater.[28][29] After requesting more challenging duties, he was
given command of cargo handling units. [30] Nixon returned to the United States
with two service stars (although he saw no actual combat) and a citation of Lieutenant
commendation, and became the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Commander Richard
Nixon of the United
Station.[31] In January, 1945, he was transferred to Philadelphia's Bureau of
States Navy, 1945
Aeronautics office to help negotiate the termination of war contracts. There he
received another letter of commendation, this time from Secretary of the Navy
James Forrestal. In October 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander.[31] He resigned his
commission on New Year's Day 1946. [32]

Congressional career [edit]

House of Representatives [edit]
Soon after World War II ended, a group of Whittier Republicans approached Nixon about running for a
seat in the United States House of Representatives.[33] Nixon accepted their offer, and waged a
campaign which ended in a victory over the five-term Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis in
November 1946. Nixon represented southern California's 12th Congressional district for the next four
years. [33] He helped finance the campaign with his World War II poker winnings. [34][35]
In Congress, Nixon supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1948, and
served on the Education and Labor Committee.[33] He was part of
the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to prepare a preliminary
report on the newly enacted Marshall Plan.[33]
Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation on
the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) broke the
impasse of the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker
Chambers' allegations that Hiss, a high State Department official, was
a Soviet spy, Nixon believed the allegations to be true. He
discovered that Chambers saved microfilm reproductions of
incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin.[36] They
were alleged to be accessible only to Hiss and to have been typed on
Nixon while serving in
Congress
his personal typewriter. Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for
statements he made to the HUAC. The discovery that Hiss committed
perjury and thus may well have been a Soviet spy thrust Nixon into
the spotlight for the first time. [37]
This case turned the young Congressman into a controversial figure. [33] He was easily reelected in
1948. [33]

Senate [edit]
In the 1950 mid-term elections, Nixon ran against Democratic Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas
for a seat in the U.S. Senate, representing California. [38] The campaign is best remembered as one of
the most contentious of the times. Nixon felt the former actress was a left-wing sympathizer, labeling
her "pink right down to her underwear."[38] Conversely, Douglas referred to Nixon as "Tricky Dick". [38]
In the November election, Nixon defeated Douglas.
In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing the spread of global communism, traveling
frequently and speaking out against "the threat." [38] He also criticized what he perceived to be
President Harry S. Truman's mishandling of the Korean War.[38] He supported statehood for Alaska
and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and
Yugoslavia. [39] He voted against price controls and other monetary controls, benefits for illegal
immigrants, and public power. [39]

Vice Presidency (1953–1961) [edit]

Main article: Eisenhower Administration
In part because of his reputation as an ardent anti-communist, 39-year-old Nixon was selected by
Republican party nominee General Dwight D. Eisenhower to be the Vice Presidential candidate at the
Republican National Convention in July 1952. [40] In September, the New York Post published an
article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret
cash fund for his personal expenses. [40] Nixon responded that the fund was not secret, and the
campaign commissioned an independent review which showed that it was used only for political
purposes. [41] Republicans, including some within Eisenhower's campaign, pressured Eisenhower to
remove Nixon from the ticket, but Eisenhower realized that he was unlikely to win without Nixon.[42]
Nixon appeared on television on September 23, 1952, to
defend himself against the allegations. He detailed his
personal finances and mentioned the independent third-party
review of the fund's accounting. [40] While it was the first time
that a national politician released his tax returns, the speech
became better known for its rhetoric, such as when he
remarked that his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a
respectable Republican cloth coat," and that, although he
had been given an American Cocker Spaniel named
Checkers in addition to his other campaign contributions, he
was not going to give the dog back because his daughters
Vice President and Mrs. Nixon in
loved it. [40] Now known as the "Checkers speech", it
Ghana, 1957
resulted in much support from the base of the Republican
Party and from the general public, [43] and greatly aided
Nixon in remaining on the ticket.[40] In the 1952 presidential
elections, Eisenhower and Nixon defeated Illinois Governor Adlai
Stevenson and Alabama Senator John Sparkman by seven million
votes.[40]
As Vice President, Nixon expanded the office into an important and
prominent post. [40][44] Nixon would conduct National Security
meetings in the president's absence.[40] As President of the Senate,
he intervened to make procedural rulings on filibusters to assure the
passage of Eisenhower's 1957 civil rights bill, which created the
United States Commission on Civil Rights and protected voting Vice President Nixon with
rights. [45] Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev,

Wikipedia articles
1959
Although he had little formal power, Nixon had the attention of the
media and the Republican Party. Using these, he and his wife
undertook many foreign trips of goodwill to garner support for American policies during the Cold
War.[40] On one such trip to Caracas, Venezuela, anti-American protesters disrupted and assaulted
Nixon's motorcade, pelting his limousine with rocks, shattering windows, and injuring Venezuela's
foreign minister. [40] Nixon was lauded and attracted international media attention for his calm and
coolness during the incidents.[40]
In March 1957, he visited Libya for a program of economic and military aid.[46] Nixon was, and is still,
the highest-ranking U.S. official to visit the African nation. In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent
Nixon to the Soviet Union for Moscow's opening of the American National Exhibition.[40] Before his
visit, Nixon cautioned: "There is no magic formula which will settle the differences between us, no
conference at the Summit which will dramatically end world tensions. The road to peace is a long and
a hard one, and if we are to stay on it, both our people and our leaders must display patience and
understanding to a maximum degree."[47] On July 24, while touring the exhibits with Soviet General
Secretary Nikita Khrushchev, the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in the
impromptu "Kitchen Debate" about the merits of capitalism versus communism.[40]
As Vice President, he officially opened the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California.[48]

1960 presidential election [edit]

Main article: United States presidential election, 1960
In 1960, Nixon launched his campaign for President of the
United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican
primaries. In his acceptance speech after winning the
nomination at the Republican convention, Nixon said: "I can
only say tonight to you that I believe in the American dream
because I have seen it come true in my own life. With faith
in America, with faith in her ideals and in her people I accept
her nomination for President of the United States." [49] He
chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Nixon debates John F. Kennedy in the
first-ever televised U.S. presidential as his running mate. [40] His Democratic opponent was John
election debate. F. Kennedy, and the race remained close for the
duration. [50] Nixon campaigned on his experience, but
Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower-Nixon administration allowed the Soviet
Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles (the "missile gap"). Kennedy told voters it was time to
"get the country moving again." [51] In the midst of the campaign, Nixon advocated stimulative tax cuts
in what would become one of the core tenets of the supply-side theory of economics.[52] He also
presented a plan for economic growth and deficit reduction, which appealed to many. [52]
A new medium was brought to the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four such
debates, Nixon was recovering from illness and, wearing little makeup, looked wan and uncomfortable,
in contrast to the composed Kennedy.[40] Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be
mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought that
Nixon had won. [53]
Nixon lost the election narrowly, with Kennedy ahead by only 120,000 votes (0.2%) in the popular
vote. [40] There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois; Nixon supporters unsuccessfully
challenged results in both states as well as nine others.[54] After all the court battles and recounts
were done, Kennedy had a greater number of electoral votes than he held after Election Day.[54]
Nixon halted further investigations to avoid a Constitutional crisis. [54] Nixon and Kennedy later met in
Key Biscayne, Florida, where Kennedy offered Nixon a job in his administration, an offer which Nixon
declined. [55]

Wilderness years [edit]

Following his loss to Kennedy, Nixon and his family returned
to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling
book, Six Crises.[40] It recorded his political involvement as
a congressman, senator and vice president and used six
different crises Nixon had experienced throughout his political
career to illustrate his political memoirs. The work won praise
from many policy experts and critics. It also found a favorable
critic in Mao Zedong, who referred to the book during
Nixon's visit in 1972.[56]
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to
challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in
the 1962 election.[40] Despite initial reluctance, Nixon
entered the race.[40] The campaign was clouded by public
suspicion that Nixon viewed the governorship as a political Nixon playing the piano, Beverly Hills,
"stepping-stone" to a higher office, some opposition from the California, 1962

far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being
California's governor.[40] He lost to Brown by nearly 300,000 votes.[40] This loss was widely believed
to be the end of his career; [40] in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election,
Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick
around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." [40] The California defeat was
highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ABC's Howard K. Smith: News and Comment entitled
"The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon." [57]
The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963; Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of
the countries he visited. [58] The family soon moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior
partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander.[40] In 1963 the family bought
an apartment at 810 Fifth Avenue.[59] Nelson Rockefeller lived upstairs, and during the Presidential
campaign of 1968 the two used different entrances and elevators. [60][61][62]
Though largely out of the public eye, he was still supported by much of the Republican base who
respected his knowledge of politics and international affairs. [40] This reputation was enhanced when
Nixon wrote an article in Foreign Affairs entitled "Asia After Vietnam",[40] in which he proposed a new
relationship with China. [63] He campaigned for Republican candidates in the 1966 Congressional
elections [40] and took an extended trip to South America and parts of the Middle East in 1967. [64]
Toward the end of 1967, Nixon was experiencing a crisis of indecision about whether to run for
president the following year. He consulted with longtime friend the Reverend Billy Graham, who urged
him to run. [65] He later held a dinner at his home with friends and all except his wife supported a
presidential bid.[65] He formally announced his candidacy for president of the United States on
February 1, 1968. [65]

1968 presidential election [edit]

Main article: Richard Nixon presidential campaign, 1968
Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a
figure of stability during a period of national unrest and
upheaval. [66] He appealed to what he called the "silent
majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the
hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators, and
secured the nomination in August. His running mate,
Maryland governor Spiro Agnew, became an increasingly
vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with
the right.[67]
Nixon sporting the "Victory" sign while
Nixon waged a prominent television campaign, meeting with campaigning in Philadelphia in July 1968.
supporters in front of cameras and advertising on the
television medium.[68] He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived
as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority. [69] His campaign was aided
by turmoil within the Democratic Party:[66] President Lyndon B. Johnson, consumed with the Vietnam
War, announced that he would not seek reelection. After a contentious Democratic primary campaign,
Vice President Hubert Humphrey held a moderate but not decisive lead over Senator Robert F.
Kennedy; however, Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles following the final, California primary.
Humphrey was nominated at a convention marked by mass protests.[66] Nixon appeared to represent a
calmer society. [66] With regard to the Vietnam War, he promised peace with honor, and campaigned
on the notion that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific." He did not give
specific plans on how to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret
plan". [70] His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective. [68]
In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and independent candidate George Wallace, Nixon
defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 votes to become the 37th President of the United States on
November 5, 1968. [66] In response to a congratulatory message from Humphrey, Nixon said: "I have
received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election.
I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know
exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."[71]

Presidency (1969–1974) [edit]

First term [edit]

Nixon was inaugurated on January 20, 1969. Pat Nixon held
the family Bibles open to Isaiah 2:4, reading, "They shall beat
their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning
hooks."[72] In his inaugural address, which received almost
uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest
honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker."[72] He
spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
Nixon is sworn in as the 37th President
on January 20, 1969, with the new First In these difficult years, America has suffered from a
Lady, Pat, holding the family Bibles. fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises
more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans
discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We
cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak
quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.”[73]

Nixon set out to reconstruct the Western Alliance, develop a relationship with China, pursue arms
control agreements with the Soviet Union, activate a peace process in the Middle East, restrain
inflation, implement anti-crime measures, accelerate desegregation, and reform welfare. [72] The most
immediate task, however, was the Vietnam War. [72]

Vietnam War [edit] The Nixon Cabinet
Main articles: Vietnam War and Role Office Name Term
of United States in the Vietnam War
President Richard Nixon 1969–1974
When Nixon took office, 300 American
Vice President Spiro Agnew 1969–1973
soldiers were dying per week in Vietnam.
Gerald Ford 1973–1974
The Johnson administration had
negotiated a deal in which the U.S. would Secretary of State William P. Rogers 1969–1973
suspend bombing in North Vietnam in Henry Kissinger 1973–1974
exchange for unconditional negotiations,
Secretary of Treasury David M. Kennedy 1969–1971
but this faltered. Nixon faced the choice
of devising a new policy to chance John Connally 1971–1972
securing South Vietnam as a non- George Shultz 1972–1974
communist state, or withdrawing American William Simon 1974
forces completely.[74]
Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird 1969–1973
Nixon approved a secret bombing
Elliot Richardson 1973
campaign of North Vietnamese positions
in Cambodia in March 1969[75] (code- James Schlesinger 1973–1974
named Operation Menu) to destroy what Attorney General John N. Mitchell 1969–1972
was believed to be the headquarters of
Richard Kleindienst 1972–1973
the National Front for the Liberation of
Elliot Richardson 1973
Vietnam. The Air Force considered the
bombings a success. [75] He then William B. Saxbe 1974
proposed simultaneous substantial Postmaster General Winton M. Blount 1969–1971
withdrawals of North Vietnamese and
Secretary of the Interior Walter Joseph Hickel 1969–1971
American forces from South Vietnam one
year after reaching a mutual Rogers Morton 1971–1974
agreement.[76] In June 1969, in a Secretary of Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin 1969–1971
campaign fulfillment, Nixon reduced troop
Earl Butz 1971–1974
strength in Vietnam by 25,000 soldiers,
who returned home to the United States. Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans 1969–1972
From 1969 to 1972 troop reduction in Peter Peterson 1972–1973
Vietnam was estimated to be 405,000
Frederick B. Dent 1973–1974
soldiers. [77]
Secretary of Labor George Shultz 1969–1970
In July 1969, the Nixons visited South
James D. Hodgson 1970–1973
Vietnam, where President Nixon met with
his U.S. military commanders and Peter J. Brennan 1973–1974
President Nguyen Van Thieu. Amid Secretary of Health, Robert Finch 1969–1970
protests at home, he implemented what Education, and Welfare Elliot Richardson 1970–1973
became known as the Nixon Doctrine, a
strategy of replacing American troops with Caspar Weinberger 1973–1974

Vietnamese troops, also called Secretary of Housing and George W. Romney 1969–1973
"Vietnamization". [66] He soon enacted Urban Development James Thomas Lynn 1973–1974
phased U.S. troop withdrawals[78] but
authorized incursions into Laos, in part to Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe 1969–1973
interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail that passed Claude Brinegar 1973–1974
through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon's
1968 campaign promise to curb the war and his subsequent Laos bombing raised questions in the
press about a "credibility gap", similar to that encountered earlier in the war by Lyndon B. Johnson.[78]
In a televised speech on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the incursion of U.S. troops into Cambodia
to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries. This led to protest and student strikes that
temporarily closed 536 universities, colleges, and high schools.[79]
Nixon formed the Gates Commission to look into ending the military service draft,[80] implemented
under President Johnson. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how
adequate military strength could be maintained without conscription.[81] The draft was extended to
June 1973, [82] and then ended. Military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and
television advertising for the United States Army began for the first time. [83]
In December 1972, though concerned about the level of civilian casualties, Nixon approved Linebacker
II, the codename for aerial bombings of military and industrial targets in North Vietnam. [84] After years
of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. [85] The treaty, however, made no provision
that 145,000–160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the Central Highlands and other areas of
S. Vietnam had to withdraw.[77] Under President Nixon, American involvement in the war steadily
declined from a troop strength of 543,000 to zero in 1973. [66] Once American support was diminished,
in 1975, North Vietnam was able to conquer South Vietnam and formed one country.

Economy [edit]
Main article: Nixon Shock
Under Nixon, direct payments from the federal government to individual American citizens in
government benefits (including Social Security and Medicare) rose from 6.3% of the Gross National
Product (GNP) to 8.9%. Food aid and public assistance also rose, beginning at $6.6 billion and
escalating to $9.1 billion. Defense spending decreased from 9.1% to 5.8% of the GNP. The revenue
sharing program pioneered by Nixon delivered $80 billion to individual states and municipalities. [86]
In 1970, the Democratic Congress passed the Economic Stabilization Act, giving Nixon power to set
wages and prices; Congress did not believe the president would use the new controls and felt this
would make him appear to be indecisive.[87] While opposed to permanent wage and price controls,[88]
Nixon imposed the controls on a temporary basis [89] in a 90 day wage and price freeze.[90] The
controls (enforced for large corporations, voluntary for others) were the largest since World War II; they
were relaxed after the initial 90 days. [91] Nixon then spoke to the American public, saying that by
"Working together, we will break the back of inflation." [92]
A Pay Board set wage controls limiting increases to 5.5% per year, and the Price Commission set a
2.5% annual limit on price increases. [93] The limits did help to control wages, but not inflation. [94]
Overall, however, the controls were viewed as successful in the short term[95] and were popular with
the public, who felt Nixon was rescuing them from price-gougers and from a foreign-caused exchange
crisis. [91][96]
Nixon was worried about the effects of increasing inflation and accelerating unemployment,[91] so he
indexed Social Security for inflation, and created Supplemental Security Income (SSI). In 1969, he had
presented the only balanced budget between 1961 and 1998. [97] However, despite speeches declaring
an opposition to the idea, he decided to offer Congress a budget with deficit spending to reduce
unemployment and declared, "Now I am a Keynesian". [91]
Another large part of Nixon's plan was the detachment of the
dollar from the gold standard.[90] By the time Nixon took
office, U.S. gold reserves had declined from $25 billion to
$10.5 billion. Gold was an underpriced commodity, as the
dollar was overpriced as a currency. The United States was
on the verge of running its first trade deficit in over 75
years. [98] The price of gold had been set at $35 an ounce
since the days of Franklin Roosevelt's presidency; foreign
countries acquired more dollar reserves, outnumbering the
Nixon in the Oval Office
entire amount of gold the United States possessed. Nixon
completely eradicated the gold standard, preventing other
countries from being able to claim gold in exchange for their dollar reserves, but also weakening the
exchange rate of the dollar against other currencies and increasing inflation by driving up the cost of
imports. [91] Nixon felt that the dollar should float freely like other currencies. [99] Said Nixon in his
speech:

"The American dollar must never again be a hostage in the hands of international
speculators.... Government... does not hold the key to the success of a people. That
key... is in your hands. Every action I have taken tonight is designed to nurture and
stimulate that competitive spirit to help us snap out of self-doubt, the self-disparagement
that saps our energy and erodes our confidence in ourselves... Whether the nation stays
Number One depends on your competitive spirit, your sense of personal destiny, your
pride in your country and yourself."[100]

Other parts of the Nixon plan included the reimposition of a 10% investment tax credit, assistance to
the automobile industry in the form of removal of excise taxes (provided the savings were passed
directly to the consumer), [99] an end to fixed exchange rates, devaluation of the dollar on the free
market, and a 10% tax on all imports into the U.S. [90] Income per family rose, and unionization
declined. [90]
Nixon wanted to lift the spirits of the country as polls showed increasing concern about the economy.
His program was viewed by nearly everyone as exceptionally bold, and astounded the Democrats. [100]
Nixon soon experienced a bounce in the polls. [101] His economic program was determined to be a
clear success by December 1971. [102] One of Nixon's economic advisers, Herbert Stein, wrote:
"Probably more new regulation was imposed on the economy during the Nixon administration than in
any other presidency since the New Deal." [91]

Initiatives within the federal government [edit]

Noam Chomsky remarked that, in many respects, Nixon was "the last liberal president."[103] Indeed,
Nixon believed in using government wisely to benefit all and supported the idea of practical
liberalism. [104]
Nixon initiated the Environmental Decade by signing the National Environmental Policy Act, the Clean
Air Act of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972, as well as
establishing many government agencies. These included the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), [91] and the Council on Environmental
Quality.[105] The Clean Air Act was noted as one of the most significant pieces of environmental
legislation ever signed.[106]
In 1971, Nixon proposed the creation of four new government departments superseding the current
structure: departments organized for the goal of efficient and effective public service as opposed to the
thematic bases of Commerce, Labor, Transportation, Agriculture, et al. Departments including the State,
Treasury, Defense, and Justice would remain under this proposal. [107] He reorganized the Post Office
Department from a cabinet department to a government-owned corporation: the U.S. Postal Service.
On June 17, 1971, Nixon formally declared the U.S. War on Drugs.[108]
Nixon cut billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the Office of Management
and Budget.[109] He established the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1972[105] and supported
the Legacy of parks program, which transferred ownership of federally owned land to the states,
resulting in the establishment of state parks and beaches, recreational areas, and environmental
education centers.

Civil rights [edit]

The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South. [110]
Strategically, Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist George C. Wallace and liberal
Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats. [111] He was
determined to implement exactly what the courts had ordered— desegregation — but did not favor
busing children, in the words of author Conrad Black, "all over the country to satisfy the capricious
meddling of judges." [112] Nixon, a Quaker, felt that racism was the greatest moral failure of the United
States[113] and concentrated on the principle that the law must be color-blind: "I am convinced that
while legal segregation is totally wrong, forced integration of housing or education is just as
wrong."[114]
Nixon tied desegregation to improving the quality of education [113] and enforced the law after the
Supreme Court, in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969), prohibited further delays.
By the fall of 1970, two million southern black children had enrolled in newly created unitary fully
integrated school districts; only 18% of Southern black children were still attending all-black schools, a
decrease from 70% when Nixon came to office.[106] Nixon's Cabinet Committee on Education, under
the leadership of Labor Secretary George P. Shultz, quietly set up local biracial committees to assure
smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding. [115] "In this sense, Nixon was the
greatest school desegregator in American history," historian Dean Kotlowski concluded.[116] Author
Conrad Black concurred: "In his singular, unsung way, Richard Nixon defanged and healed one of the
potentially greatest controversies of the time."[117] Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Nixon's presidential
counselor, commented in 1970 “There has been more change in the structure of American public
school education in the last month than in the past 100 years.”[118]
In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan, the first
significant federal affirmative action program in 1970. [119] Nixon also endorsed the Equal Rights
Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification as a
Constitutional amendment.[120] Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists
criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election, which led to a much
stronger women's rights agenda. Nixon increased the number of female appointees to administration
positions.[121] Nixon signed the landmark laws Title IX in 1972, prohibiting gender discrimination in all
federally funded schools and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. In 1970 Nixon had vetoed the
Comprehensive Child Development Act, denouncing the universal child-care bill, but signed into law
Title X, which was a step forward for family planning and contraceptives.
It was during the Nixon Presidency that the Supreme Court issued its Roe v. Wade ruling, legalizing
abortion. First Lady Pat Nixon had been outspoken about her support for legalized abortion, a goal for
many feminists (though there was a significant pro-life minority faction of the Women's Liberation
Movement as well). Nixon himself did not speak out publicly on the abortion issue, but was personally
pro-choice, and believed that, in certain cases such as rape, or an interracial child, abortion was an
option. [122]

U.S. space program [edit]
In 1969, Nixon's first year in office, the United States sent
three men to the moon, becoming the first nation in the
world to do so. On July 20, Nixon addressed Neil Armstrong
and Buzz Aldrin, two of the astronauts, live over radio during
their historic Apollo 11 moonwalk. Nixon also placed a
telephone call to Armstrong on the moon, the longest
distance phone call ever,[123] and called it "the most historic
phone call ever made from the White House."[124] He
observed their landing in the ocean from the deck of the
aircraft carrier USS Hornet.[124] All U.S. Project Apollo moon
landings, and the attempted moon landing of Apollo 13, took
place during Nixon's first term. On November 14, 1969, he
became the first incumbent president to attend a rocket Nixon visits the Apollo 11 astronauts in
launch, Apollo 12. quarantine.

On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of
NASA's Space Shuttle program,[125] a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore
and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however, NASA's
budget declined. [126] NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine was drawing up ambitious plans for the
establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned
expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal. [127]
On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet
space program, culminating in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint-mission of an American Apollo
and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975. [128]

Indo-Pakistani War [edit]
Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
A conflict broke out in Pakistan in 1971 following independence demonstrations in East Pakistan;
President Yahya Khan instructed the Pakistani Army to quell the riots, resulting in widespread human
rights abuses. President Nixon liked Yahya personally, and credited him for helping to open a channel
to China; accordingly, he felt obligated to support him in the struggle.[129] There were limits to how far
the U.S. could associate itself with Pakistan, however.[129] American public opinion was concerned
with the atrocities [130] and the emigration of over 10 million people into India.[129]
Nixon relayed messages to Yahya, urging him to restrain Pakistani forces. [131] His objective was to
prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he feared an Indian invasion of West Pakistan
that would lead to Indian domination of the sub-continent and strengthen the position of the Soviet
Union,[132] which had recently signed a cooperation treaty with India. Nixon felt that the Soviet Union
was inciting the country. [131]
Nixon met with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and did not believe her assertion that she would not
invade Pakistan; [133] he did not trust her and once referred to her as an "old witch".[134] On December
3, Yahya attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan. [135] Nixon
issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it [135]
because he favored a cease-fire.[136] The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of
military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, reimbursing those countries[137] despite
Congressional objections. [138] A cease fire was reached on December 16 and Bangladesh was
created.[139]

China [edit]
Main article: 1972 Nixon visit to China
Relations between the Western powers and Eastern Bloc
changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960, the
People's Republic of China publicly split from its main ally,
the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. As tension along
the border between the two communist nations reached its
peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to
shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold
War.[140]
Nixon had begun entreating China a mere month into office President Nixon shakes hands with
Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai upon arriving
by sending covert messages of rapprochement through
in Beijing
Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania [141] and Yahya Khan of
Pakistan[142] in December 1970. He reduced many trade
restrictions between the two countries, and silenced anti-China voices within the White House.
In April 1971, the Chinese table tennis team invited the American table tennis team to attend a
demonstration competition for a week in China. [143] The invitation came upon the order of Mao
Zedong himself, who had taken note of Nixon's "subtle overtures" to improve U.S.-Chinese relations,
including the conflict in Pakistan. [143] This was significant in that the fifteen-member table tennis team
were allowed to enter mainland China after a period of over twenty years in which Americans, except
on very rare occasions, had been denied visas [144] (the term "ping pong diplomacy" arose from this
encounter).[145]
Chinese Premier Chou En-lai, through Pakistani intermediaries, had relayed a message to Nixon
reading: "The Chinese government reaffirms its willingness to receive publicly in Peking a special envoy
of the president of the United States, or the U.S. secretary of state, or even the president himself." [146]
Nixon sent then-National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971,
to arrange a visit by the president and first lady. [146] Soon, the world was stunned to learn that Nixon
intended to visit Communist China the following year.[147]
In February 1972, President and Mrs. Nixon traveled to
China, where the president was to engage in direct talks with
Mao and Chou. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over forty hours
in preparation. [148] Upon touching down, the President and
First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chou.
According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose:

"[Nixon] knew that when his old friend John Foster
Dulles had refused to shake the hand of Chou En-lai
in Geneva in 1954, Chou had felt insulted. He knew
President Nixon greets Chinese Party too that American television cameras would be at the
Chairman Mao Zedong (left) in a historicBeijing airport to film his arrival. A dozen times on the
visit to the People's Republic of China,
1972.
way to Peking, Nixon told Kissinger and Secretary of
State William Rogers that they were to stay on the
plane until he had descended the gangway and
shaken Zhou Enlai's hand. As added insurance, a Secret Service agent blocked the aisle
of Air Force One to make sure the president emerged alone." [149]

Over one hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was
strongly favored over printed publications, as it would capture the trip's visuals much better while
snubbing the print journalists Nixon despised.[149]
Nixon and Kissinger were soon summoned to an hour-long meeting with Mao and Zhou at Mao's
official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues. [150] Mao later told his doctor that he
had been impressed by Nixon, who was forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. [150] He also said
he was suspicious of Kissinger, [150] though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as
his "encounter with history." [149] A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was conducted that
evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Chou; during this meeting
he stated that he believed “there is one China, and Taiwan is a part of China.”[151][152][153] When not
in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City, Ming Tombs, and the
Great Wall.[149] Americans received their first glance into China via Pat Nixon, who toured the city of
Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals accompanied by the American
media. [149]
The visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations.[66] Fearing the possibility of a Sino-
American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for détente.[154]

Soviet Union [edit]

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following
his successful visit to China, the Nixon administration drew up plans for the president to visit the Soviet
Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972. [155]
Nixon met with Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev, and
engaged in intense negotiations regarding internatio

Nixon meets with Brezhnev during the
Soviet Leader's trip to the U.S. in 1973

[edit]

Nixon campaigns during the 1972
presidential campaign

[edit]

[edit]

Nixon is sworn in for a second term in
1973

[edit]

[edit]

Nixon bids farewell to his staff, August
9, 1974, as First Lady Pat Nixon and the
rest of his family look on.

Nixon displays the V-for-victory sign as
he departs the White House for the final
time.

Richard Nixon's resignation speech

Resignation speech of President Richard
Nixon, delivered August 8, 1974.
Problems listening to this file? See media help .

[edit]

The highlighted countries are those
visited by Richard Nixon during his
presidency. He was the first president to
visit many high profile countries.

[edit]

[edit]

[edit]

Nixon joins Presidents Ronald Reagan,
Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter at the
White House, 1981

[edit]

[edit]

Richard and Pat Nixon in
1990

[edit]

[edit]

The graves of President Richard and
first lady Pat Nixon.

[edit]

Nixon meets Elvis Presley in December
1970 "The President & The King."

[edit]

[edit]

[[Richard Nixon]]
248 references/footnotes
Nearly 1/3 of article length is citation/reference

[[George W. Bush]]
[edit]

356 references/footnotes
Roughly 40% of article length
[edit]

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