2. Definition and Epidemiology
Urinary incontinence
Involuntary loss of urine in sufficient amount or
frequency to be a social and/or health problem
Increases with age
Women (30%)> men (15%)
As much as 60% among nursing home
elderly
3. Jackson, RA et al. 2004. Urinary
Incontinence in Elderly Women: Findings
From the Health, Aging, and Body
Composition Study. Obstet Gynecol 104:
301–7.
4. 21% reported incontinence at least weekly
42% reported predominantly urge
incontinence and 40% reported stress
Nearly twice as many white women as
black women (27% versus 14%, P < .001)
5. Factors associated with urge incontinence
white race (odds ratio OR 3.1, 95% confidence
interval CI 2.0–4.8)
diabetes treated with insulin (OR 3.5, 95% CI
1.6 –7.9)
depressive symptoms (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.4 –
5.3)
current oral estrogen use (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1–
2.6)
arthritis (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1–2.6)
decreased physical performance (OR 1.6 per
point on 0–4 scale, 95% CI 1.1–2.3)
6. Factors associated with stress
incontinence
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR 5.6,
95% CI 1.3–23.2)
white race (OR 4.1, 95% CI 2.5– 6.7)
current oral estrogen use (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.3–
3.1)
Arthritis (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.0 –2.4)
high body mass index (OR 1.3 per 5 kg/m2,
95% CI 1.1–1.6).
8. Urination is a complex process and
incompletely understood
Influence by higher centers in the
brainstem, cerebral cortex and cerebellum
Cerebral cortex predominantly inhibitory
Brainsterm facilitates urination
9. Urination reflex centered in the sacral
micturition center
Afferent pathway (somatic and autonomic)
carry bladder filling info to the spinal cord
Sympathetic tone closes bladder neck and
inhibits parasympathetic tone (bladder dome
relaxes)
Pelvic muscle tone maintained also inhibits
parasympathetic tone
On urination, the reverse occurs
10. Normal urination is a dynamic process
During filling, pressure remains low (<15 cm)
First urge usually at 150-250 cc
Normal bladder capacity 300-600cc
Detrussor muscle contracts and exceeds
urethral resistance urine flow
11. Basic Causes
Urologic, neurologic, psychological and
functional factors may contribute
↓bladder capacity, ↑residual urine,
↑prevalence of involuntary bladder
contractions
In 40-75% of incontinent elderly
But also 5-30% of continent elderly
12. Involuntary bladder contractions +
impaired mobility a substantial
proportion of incontinent elderly
Decline in bladder outlet and urethral
resistance in women
Relate to laxity of pelvic muscle due to
childbirth, obesity, deconditioned muscles, and
hysterectomy
13. In men, related to prostatic enlargement
Associated nocturia, low urine flow rate and
detrussor instability leads to overflow and/or
urge incontinence
In both sexes, detrussor hyperactivity with
impaired contractility
14. Acute and reversible causes
Acute incontinence
Sudden onset, related to acute illness or
iatrogenesis and subsides once cause is
resolved
Persistent incontinence
Unrelated to an acute cause and persist over
time
15. Condition Management
Conditions affecting lower urinary
tract
UTI Antibiotics
Atrophic vaginitis/urethritis Topical estrogen
Postprostatectomy Behavioral, avoid more surgery
Stool impaction Disimpaction, fiber intake, etc.
Drug side effects Discontinue or change drug therapy
Increased urine production
Metabolic (hyperglycemia, Treat DM, treat cause of hypercalcemia
hypercalcemia)
Excess fluid intake Reduce intake of diuretic fluids
Volume overload Medical and supportive therapy
Impaired ability or willingness to
reach toilet
Delirium Diagnosis or treatment of cause
Chronic illness or immobility Regular toileting, environment alteration
Appropriate therapy
psychological
17. 2 basic abnormalities in these types
Failure to store urine
Failure to fully empty the bladder
18. Definition Causes
Stress Weakness of pelvic floor muscles and
Involuntary loss of urine with urethral hypermobility
increases in abdominal pressure Bladder outlet or urethral sphincter weakness
(e.g. coughing) Postprostatectomy
Urge Detrussor hyperactivity, isolated or with the
leakage of urine due to inability to following: local genitourinary condition, CNS
delay voiding after sensation of disorders
bladder fullness is perceived
Overflow Anatomic obstruction
Urine leakage from mechanical Acontractile bladder due to DM or SCI
forces on an overdistended bladder Detrusor-sphincter dyssynergy associated
or other effects of urinary retention with MS or other suprasacral spinal lesions
on bladder and sphincter function Medication effect
Functional Severe dementia and other neurological
Associated with inability to toilet disorders
due to impaired cognition or Depression
physical functioning and hostility
environmental barriers or
psychological unwillingness
19. Evaluation
Includes thorough history, PE, urinalysis
and postvoid residual determination
Objectives
Identify potentially reversible conditions
Identify conditions that require further
diagnostic test or urologic/gynecologic
evaluation
Develop a management plan
20. All patients
History, PE, urinalysis, postvoid residual determination
Selected patients
Lab studies
Urine culture, urine cytology, serum glucose and calcium, renal
function tests, renal ultrasound
Gynecologic evaluation
Urologic evaluation
Cystourethroscopy
Urodynamic tests
Simple
• Observation of voiding
• Cough test for stress incontinence
• Simple cystometry
• Urine flowmetry (for men)
Complex
• Multichannel cystometrogram
• Pressure-flow study
• Leak point pressure
• Urethral pressure profilometry
• Sphincter electromyography
• videourodynamics
21. Patient history should also include
Characteristic of incontinence: timing,
frequency, amount
symptoms of voiding difficulty: hesitancy,
intermittent voiding, straining to void
Symptoms of stress vs urge incontinence
22. PE should include
Abdominal, rectal, genital exam
Exam of lumbosacral innervation
In women, examine for POP, inflammation suggestive of
atrophic vaginitis
Cough test
Leakage with coughing documents stress incontinence
Delayed leakage (>3 seconds after) indicates cough-
induced bladder contraction
Mobility and mental status
In patients with nocturia, examine for CHF or venous
insufficiency
23. Urinalysis
Clear relationship between incontinence and
UTI
Controversial for asymptomatic bacteriuria
No benefit in treating nursing home elderly with
stable bacteriuria
May be reasonable to treat initially in non-
institutionalized patients
24. Postvoid determination
May be done using UTZ
Done within a few minutes of a spontaneous
(continent or incontinent) void
<100 cc in the absence of straining generally
reflect adequate bladder emptying
>200 cc is abnormal
25. Criteria Definition Rationale
History
Recent lower urinary tract or Surgery or irradiation within Structural abnormality related
pelvic surgery/iiradiation the past 6 months to the procedure
Recurrent symptomatic UTI 3 or more symptomatic Structural abnormality
episodes in 12 months predisposing to UTI
Physical Examination
Marked POP Prominent cystocele Abnormality may underlie the
descending entire height of pathophysiology of
vaginal vault with coughing incontinence; may benefit
on speculum exam from surgery
Gross enlargement on DRE; Evaluation to exclude cancer
Prostatic enlargement or induration or assymetry of
possible cancer lobes
Postvoid residual
Diffuculty inserting 14F Unable to pass through, Anatomick block of the
straight catheter requiring more force or urethra or bladder
larger, stiffer catheter
Residual >200cc Anatomic or neurogenic
obstruction
26. Criteria Definition Rationale
Urinalysis
Hematuria >5 RBCS per HPF in the Pathology of urinary tract
absence of UTI should be excluded
Therapeutic Trial
Failure to respond Persistence of symptoms Urodynamic evaluation
after adequate trial
27. Management
Acute incontinence in elderly in acute care
Catheterization
Toilet accessibility or substitutes
Bed pads or diapers
Causes or contributing factors should be treated
Supportive measures
Education
Environment manipulation
Avoidance of iatrogenesis
Modification of fluids and diuretics
Skin care
28. Behavioral interventions
May be patient-dependent or caregiver-
dependent
Goal of the former is to restore normal voiding
and continence
The latter is to keep patient and environment
dry
29. Patient-dependent interventions
Require a functional and motivated patient and
a skill trainer
Relies on education, counselling and frequent
patient contact
Kegel exercises are effective for stress, urge or
mixed incontinence
3-5 sets of 10 contractions throughout the day, each
contraction 3-10 seconds in duration
30. Biofeedback
Use recordings of bladder, rectal or vaginal pressure
or electrical activity to train patients to contract pelvic
floor muscles with the abdominal muscles relaxed
Limited by requirement for equipment and trained
personel; may also be invasive and unacceptable
Bladdder training
Uses the pelvic muscle exercises and strategies to
manage urgency
Persistence of voiding difficulties despite the
protocol should prompt urologic referral
31. Hay-Smith EJC, and C. Dumoulin. Pelvic
floor muscle training versus no treatment,
or inactive control treatments, for urinary
incontinence in women. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews 2006,
Issue 1. Art. No.: CD005654. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD005654
32. To determine the effects of pelvic floor muscle
training for women with urinary incontinence in
comparison to no treatment, placebo or sham
treatments, or other inactive control treatments.
403 women in six trials of varying age and types
of incontinence
Use of PFMT lead to more reports of cure
Greater benefit in younger populations
Studies heterogenous and needs further
investigation
33.
34. Caregiver-dependent interventions
Prevent incontinence episodes
Motivated caregivers are essential
Includes scheduled toileting, habit training and
prompted voiding
Scheduled toileting
Putting the patient to toiletting at scheduled intervals
regardless of expressed desire to void
Habit training
A schedule of toileting based on patient’s pattern of
continent voids and incontinent episodes
35. Prompted voiding
Involves focusing the patient’s attention on their
bladders and prompting the patient to attempt
voiding and giving feedback by personal interaction
37. Drug Treatment
Prescribed in conjunction with one or
more behavioral interventions
For urge incontinenceanticholinergic
and bladder smooth muscle relaxants
60-70% reduction in incontinence episodes
Systemic anticholinergic side effects
(constipation, dry mouth, urinary retention);
drug-induced delirium in patients with dementia
38. Stress incontinencecombination of α-agonist
and estrogen
Pseudoephedrine most commonly used
Appropriate for patients
With mild to moderate stress incontinence
No major anatomic abnormality like cystocele
No contraindication to these drugs, e.g. poorly controlled
hypertension
Estrogen (topical or oral) combined with α-agonists also
effective in women with atrophic vaginitis and urethritis
0.5-1.0 g vaginal cream@HS x 1-2 months
39. May combine several drug classes for
mixed incontinence
Drug therapy for chronic overflow
incontinence not usually effective
40.
41.
42. Surgery and periurethral injection
Elderly women with stress incontinence
who are
Unresponsive to nonsurgical treatment
With significant degree of pelvic organ prolapse
(POP)
Range from periurethral collagen injections and
neck suspension to sling procedures
Periurethral injection for those with intrinsic
urethral weakness
43. Indicated in men whose incontinence is
associated with outflow obstruction
Complete retention
Those with significant residuals causing recurrent
UTI and hydronephrosis
Decision should be based on degree of
symptomatology, benefits and risks
44. Catheters and Catheter Care
3 basic types
External catheters
Intermittent straight catheterization
Chronic indwelling catheterization
45. External catheters
In males, consists of a form of condom
Increased risk of developing symptomatic
infections
For intractable incontinence in males without
retention and are physically dependent
Safety and effectiveness in females is not well
document in the elderly population
46. Intermittent catheterization
Can be done 2-4x daily
Goal is to keep residual urine to <300 cc
Straight catheter should be kept clean (not
necessarily sterile)
Practical and reduces risk of symptomatic
infection compared to chronic catheterization
Presence of anatomic abnormalities increase
risk of infection in the elderly
Risk of nosocomial infection also high in
institutional settings
47. Chronic indwelling catheterization
Indications
Urinary retention causing persistent overflow
incontinence, cannot be corrected surgically or
medically and cannot be managed practically by
intermittent catheterization
Wounds or ulcers contaminated by urine
Patient preference
Care of terminally ill or severely impaired patients in
whom bed and clothing changes are disruptive or
uncomfortable
49. Fecal Incontinence
Less common
Unusual in elderly patients who are
continent of urine
30-50% of institutionalized patients with
urinary incontinence also have fecal
incontinence
52. Evaluation
Detailed history
PE should include perineal examination and
DRE
Done on left lateral or decubitus position
Examine for hemorrhoids, patulous anus (indicates
denervation), anal deformities or anal dermatitis
Test for excessive perineal descent or rectal
prolapse by asking patient to strain
Test for anocutaneous reflex
Examination of the rectal vault
53. Diagnostic Testing
Anorectal manometry-assess sphincter tone
and strength
Anorectal ultrasound-assess structural integrity
EMG-rules out denervation
Barium proctography
Dynamic pelvic MRI
54. General Measures
Incontinence pads
Barrier preparations like zinc oxide
Topical antifungals for perineal fungal infections
55.
56. Biofeedback
To improve perception of rectal sensation and
responsiveness of the rectal sphincter
However most studies have imprecise
endpoints and lacked sham controls
No superiority over conservative measures
No difference between instrumental and non-
instrumental biofeedback
57. Surgical methods
Anal sphincteroplasty
Effective for acute fecal incontinence; uncertain
effectivity and durability in chronic incontinence
May have failure rates as high as 50% after 5 years
Antegrade colonic irrigation by a
cecostomy/appendicostomy
Optimal for those with neurogenic fecal incontinence
and anorectal deformities
Can be complicated by stenosis and infection
58. Surgical replacement using surrounding
muscles and implantation of a stimulator
(dynamic graciloplasty)
Pelvic floor muscle repair
Diverting colostomy
Sacral nerve stimulation